RESTRAINING ACTS-REVENUE

the Constitution itself expressly declares, "the people of the United States," but only the States as political corporations. The logical effect of this doctrine, practically, would be to destroy the Union, and relegate it to the barren desert of the Articles of Confederation, or anarchy under the name of government. These resolutions -the last two modified by Nicholas passed the Kentucky legislature, Nov. 14, 1798, with only two or three dissenting votes. These nullification doctrines were echoed by the Virginia legislature, Dec. 24, in a series of resolutions drafted by Madison, and offered by John Taylor, of Caroline, who, a few months before, had suggested the idea of a separate confederacy, to be composed of Virginia and North Carolina. Madison's resolutions were more general in their terms, and allowed latitude in their interpretation. They were passed, after a warm debate, by a vote of 100 to 63 in the House of Delegates, and 14 to 3 in the Senate. They were sent to the other States, accompanied by an address, drawn, probably, by Madison, to which an answer was soon put forth, signed by fifty-eight of the minority. Neither the Senators nor Representatives in Congress from Kentucky ventured to lay the nullifying resolutions before their respective Houses; nor did the resolutions of Kentucky or Virginia find favor with the other legislatures. See KENTUCKY RESO

LUTIONS.

straining all the other provinces, excepting three, in their trade and commerce. The three exempted colonies, regarding the exception as a bribe to induce them to oppose the measures of the other colonies, spurned the proffered favor, and submitted to the restraints imposed upon their neighbors.

The excepted colonies were New York, Delaware, and North Carolina. The ministers were disappointed in their calculations on the moderation of New York, for at that time its Assembly was preparing to assert the rights of the colony in the very important matter of taxation.

Retaliation, THE. Lieutenant Bainbridge, in the Retaliation, was cruising off Guadeloupe, W. I., late in 1798, when he fell in with a French squadron, which he took to be British vessels. When he discovered his mistake it was too late to avoid trouble, and two French frigates (Volontaire and L'Insurgente) attacked and captured the Retaliation. The Insurgente was one of the swifest vessels on the ocean. She immediately made chase after two American ships. Bainbridge was a prisoner on the Volontaire. "What are the armaments of the two vessels?" asked the French commander, as he and Bainbridge were watching the Insurgente gaining on the Americans. He quickly replied, "Twenty-eight 12's and twenty 9's." This was double the force, and startled the commander, who was senior captain of the Insurgente. He immediately signalled his vessel to give up the chase, and the Americans escaped. Bainbridge's deceptive reply cost him only a few curses. The Retaliation was the first vessel captured during the war. See BAINBRIDGE, WILLIAM.

Reuterdahl, HENRY, artist; born in Sweden, Aug. 12, 1871. He was a war correspondent during the progress of the American-Spanish War, and has been a contributor to the magazines. He is well known through his pictures of the naval battles of the American-Spanish War.

Restraining Acts. Alarmed by the proceedings of the Continental Congress, late in 1774, and the movements in New England, the British ministry, early in 1775, took vigorous measures to assert its power in coercing the English-American colonies into submission. Lord North, the premier, introduced into Parliament a bill to restrain the trade and commerce of the New England provinces to Great Britain, Ireland, and the British West Indies, and to prohibit them from carrying on any fishery on the banks of Newfoundland and other places, under certain conditions and for a limited time. The bill was adopted Revenue, PUBLIC. In 1764 the inby a large majority. Soon afterwards, crease of smuggling became so prejudicial on being assured that the rest of the to the British revenue that the governcolonies upheld the New-Englanders in ment made a regulation requiring the their rebellious proceedings, a second bill commanders of vessels stationed on the was passed, similar to the first, for re- coasts of England, and even those ships

destined for the English-American col- of Washington. On April 8, 1789, Mr.

onies, to perform the functions of rev- Madison offered a resolution for laying enue officers, and to conform themselves specific duties on imported rum and other to the rules established for the protection spirituous liquors, wines, tea, coffee, sugar, of the customs. The oppressions prac- molasses, and pepper, the amount being tised under this law called forth loud left blank; and imposing ad valorem duties

The all-important subject of a public revenue to replenish the empty treasury of the United States was acted upon by the first Congress, before the inauguration this time.

REVERE

The public revenue of the United States Congress sent him to Philadelphia to learn is now derived from three general sources. the art of making powder, and on his reThe sources and amounts for the fiscal turn he set up a mill. The president of year ending June 30, 1901, were: Cus- the Congress (Joseph Warren) chose toms, $238,786,740; internal revenue, Revere as one of his trusted messengers $305,104,410; and miscellaneous, $41,- to warn the people of Lexington and Con547,157-total, $585,848,309. Under the cord of the expedition sent thither by war revenue act, which went into effect Gage (April 18, 1775), and to tell Adams on July 13, 1898, and was greatly modi- and Hancock of their danger. He was fied on July 1, 1901, the sum of $310,- made a prisoner while on his way from 053,363 was collected up to June 1, 1901. Lexington towards Concord, but was soon The sources of internal revenue and their several amounts are indicated by the following official report for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1900: From spirits, $109,868,817; tobacco, $59,355,084; fermented liquors, $73,550,754; banks and bankers, $1,461; adhesive stamps, $40,964,365; and miscellaneous, $11,575,626.

Revere, JOSEPH WARREN, grandson of Paul Revere; born in Boston, May 17, 1812; was an officer in the United States navy, 1828-50. During the Civil War he became colonel of a New Jersey regiment, and was promoted brigadier-general in 1862. He was court - martialled in 1863, but the sentence was revoked by President Lincoln in 1864. Revere retired to private life in 1864, and died in Hoboken, N. J., April 20, 1880.

Revere, PAUL, patriot; born in Boston, Mass., Jan. 1, 1735. Was descended from the Huguenots, and was educated in his father's trade of goldsmith. In the French and Indian War he was at Fort Edward, on the upper Hudson, as a lieutenant of artillery, and on his return he established himself as a goldsmith, and, without instruction, became a copper-plate engraver. He was one of four engravers in America when the Revolutionary War broke out. He had engraved, in 1766, a print emblematic of the repeal of the Stamp Act, and in 1767 another called "The Seventeen Rescinders." He published a print of the Boston massacre, in 1770, and from that time became one of the most active opponents of the acts of Parliament. Revere engraved the plates, made the press, and printed the bills of credit, or paper money, of Massachusetts, issued in 1775; he also engraved the plates for the "Continental money." He was sent by the Sons of Liberty, of Boston, to confer with their brethren in New York and Philadelphia. Early in 1775 the Provincial

PAUL REVERE.

released. Longfellow made Revere's midnight ride the subject of his well-known poem. He served in the military corps for the defence of his State, and after the war he cast church bells and cannon; and he founded the copper-works at Canton, Mass., afterwards carried on by the Revere Copper Company. He was the first in the United States to smelt copper ore and roll it into sheets. In 1795 Revere, as grand master of the masonic order, laid the corner-stone of the Statehouse in Boston. He died in Boston, Mass., May 10, 1818.

Revolution, DIPLOMACY OF THE.

As Americans began to contemplate the necessoon as the idea of independence had taken sity of foreign aid, material and moral. the practical shape of a resolution and The Congress appointed a secret comdeclaration adopted by Congress, the mittee of correspondence for the purpose,

REVOLUTION, DIPLOMACY OF THE

and sent Silas Deane upon a half-com- Meanwhile the Continental Congress had mercial, half-diplomatic mission to France. sent John Jay as ambassador to Spain, to Franklin was at first opposed to seeking win the active friendship of that power. foreign alliances. "A virgin State," he He could effect nothing; and it was well he said, "should preserve the virgin char- did not, as subsequent events manifested. acter, and not go about suitoring for al- From the time of the treaty of alliance liances, but wait with decent dignity for with France, the action of Spain towards the application of others." But Franklin the United States was selfish, hypocritical, soon became the chief suitor in Europe, for and often sullen. She declared war in the autumn of 1776 he was sent as against England for her own selfish pur"commissioner" to France to seek an al- pose, but it worked in favor of the Ameriliance and material aid. The aid was cans by keeping British troops employed furnished through Beaumarchais, at first elsewhere than in America. The Count secretly, and afterwards by the govern- d'Aranda, the Spanish minister in France, ment openly. The American commission- who had watched the course of events with ers proposed a treaty of alliance with keen vision from the beginning to the end France, but the French government hesi- of the American war for independence, tated, for it did not then desire an open suggested to his sovereign, as an antidote rupture with England; but when the to American independence, the formation news of the defeat and capture of Bur- of the Spanish-American colonies into ingoyne's army, late in 1777, reached France, the King no longer hesitated, and a treaty of amity, commerce, and alliance was consummated in February, 1778.

The recognition of the independence of the United States involved France in war with England, and the latter sent commissioners to negotiate with the Americans for peace. The terms were not satisfactory, and the mission failed. The French government pressed Spain to join in espousing the cause of the Americans, but that power hesitated, because a support of such a republican system in America might be dangerous to the integrity of her own colonial system in that part of the world. In this feeling France had been alike cautious, and for the same reasons. They had agreed that while it would not be politic to invade the rights of the British crown, they would evade the obligations of treaties, for both had a mischievous intent to foment the disturbances between England and her American colonies. While doing this secretly, they held the language of honest neutrality. When, therefore, France had determined openly to espouse the cause of the Americans, Spain was urged to do likewise; but the Spanish Court could not be persuaded to go beyond a certain point. The French minister, with keen prescience, saw ultimate independence for America, while the Spanish Court dreaded such a result.

dependent Spanish monarchies. He said, in reference to the treaty of peace in 1783: "The independence of the English colonies has been, then, recognized. It is for me a subject of grief and fear. France has but few possessions in America; but she was bound to consider that Spain, her most intimate ally, had many, and that she now stands exposed to terrible reverses. From the beginning France has acted against her true interests in encouraging and supporting this independence, and so I have often declared to the ministers of this nation."

When the armed neutrality was proposed in 1780, the Americans gladly joined the European powers with their moral influence (all they could then give), for it would aid themselves by weakening England. Its results were disappointing to the other powers, but it added to the open enemies of England. The Congress, in instructions to Dana at St. Petersburg, had said: "You will readily perceive that it must be a leading and capital point, if these United States shall be formally admitted as a party to the convention of the neutral maritime powers for maintaining the freedom of commerce." Thus early, while yet fighting for independence, the American statesmen assumed the dignity and used the language of the representatives of a powerful nation, which they certainly expected to form.

The Americans had opened negotiations with the States-General of Holland