known by different names in the several countries where it prevails.1 Its ritual has been loaded with ceremonialism; it worships images and relics; and in that extensive phase of it known as Lamaism it has surpassed all other religions in its mechanical facilities for prayer. Its prayer-wheels, its formulæ, especially the mystical "six syllables," which are endlessly repeated, whirled about in the wheels, turned by water, wind, and hand power, printed upon pieces of cloth to flutter in the breezes, and carved in thousands of places upon rocks and walls, are all mechanical expedients for endless prayer "by mouth, water, wind, and hand.' 2 Do we wonder that Buddhism is characterized by a shocking lack of reverence for a superior power, and that it is a system of the most intense and unrelieved legalism? The Buddha saved himself and made himself perfect,3 and this is the one law for all his followers.4

The four great foundation truths of Buddhism are designated by Dr. Menzies in his "History of Religion." 5 So far as the laity (upasakos) are concerned, the ethical code which applies

ethical code.

to them may be summarized as follows: (1) Thou The specifications of its shalt not destroy life-applicable to animal as well as human life. (2) Thou shalt not steal.

(3) Thou shalt not commit adultery. (4) Thou shalt not lie. (5) Thou shalt not drink intoxicating liquors. To this number three others may be added, which a layman may observe as a matter of merit, or

1 Dods, "Mohammed, Buddha, and Christ," pp. 181-185.

2 The Missionary Review of the World, June, 1896, pp. 416–420.

VA Buddhist Catechism," pp. 5, 40.

4 "Buddhism teaches the highest kindliness and wisdom without a personal God; the highest understanding without revelation; a moral order of the world and just compensation which are of necessity consummated on the principle of the laws of nature and of our own being; a continuity of individuality without an immortal soul; an eternal beatitude without a local heaven; a possibility of redemption without a vicarious redeemer; a salvation at which each one is his own savior, and which can be attained by one's own strength, and already gained in this life and upon this earth without prayer, sacrifice, penances, and outward rites, without consecrated priests, without the mediation of saints, and without the action of divine grace."-Ibid., p. 89.

5 "1. The Noble Truth of Suffering. Birth is suffering, decay is suffering, illness is suffering, death is suffering. Presence of objects we hate is suffering, separation from objects we love is suffering, not to obtain what we desire is suffering. Briefly, the fivefold clinging to existence is suffering.

“2. The Noble Truth of the Cause of Suffering. Thirst that leads to rebirth, accompanied by pleasure and lust, finding its delight here and there. This thirst is threefold, namely, thirst for pleasure, thirst for existence, thirst for prosperity.

"3. The Noble Truth of the Cessation of Suffering. It ceases with the complete cessation of this thirst, a cessation which consists in the absence of every pas

may disregard if he prefers. They are intended as "counsels of perfection," and are especially important only upon certain sacred occasions. These are as follows: (6) Not to eat at prohibited seasons. (7) To abstain from dancing, the singing of worldly songs, the visiting of public plays and musical exhibitions. (8) To avoid the use of ornaments of every kind, perfumes, oils, and ointments-in short, anything that leads to vanity.1 The commandments which are incumbent upon the bhikshus (monks) form a still higher code, and include the eight rules already mentioned, with the substitution of strict celibacy in place of the third, and the addition of two other commandments, as follows: (9) To abandon the use of luxurious beds, to sleep on a hard, low couch, and to avoid all and every worldly vanity. (10) To dwell always in voluntary poverty. There is still a third or highest code, which is intended for Arahats, or those who are in the way of saintship. The substance of this exalted law is included in what is known as the "seven jewels of the law," which are to be strictly observed, and in the ten fetters " from which the candidate for saintship must free himself.2 The marked distinction between the laity and the priesthood in the application of these different codes has resulted in a degree of laxity and indifference to all ethical requirements on the part of the laity which has placed them by themtrasted with that of the selves and freed them largely from all moral restraints. They are practically without oversight on the part of the superior orders, and are left to live as they will, in accordance with their own inclinations. They are accountable to no one, and live pretty much as they please. In fact, they are little ac

The status of the Buddhist laity as con

higher orders.

sion, with the abandoning of this thirst, with the deliverance from it, with the destruction of desire.

"4. The Noble Truth of the Path which leads to the Cessation of Suffering. The holy Eightfold Path; that is to say, Right Belief, Right Aspiration, Right Speech, Right Conduct, Right Means of Livelihood, Right Endeavour, Right Memory, Right Meditation."-Page 365.

1 "A Buddhist Catechism," pp. 60, 61.

2 The seven jewels of the law" are as follows: "The four earnest meditations; the fourfold great struggle against error; the four roads to saintship; the five moral powers; the five organs of spiritual sense; the seven kinds of wisdom; and the noble eightfold path."

The "ten fetters " to be overcome, according to Dr. Rhys Davids, are as follows: "The delusion of self; doubt; dependence on rites; sensuality, or bodily passions; hatred; love of life on earth; desire for life in heaven; pride; self-righteousness; ignorance."

For a full exposition of the "jewels" and the "fetters " consult Rhys Davids, "Buddhism: Its History and Literature," Lecture IV. and Lecture V.

First Christian College in the East. Built by Carey and his associates in 1819.
Carey's house, in which he died, visible on the left. (E. B. M. S.)

SERAMPORE COLLEGE, BENGAL.

Senate House of Calcutta University on the left. Presidency College on the right. The Square is one of the most important centres of student life in the East.

COLLEGE SQUARE, CALCUTTA, INDIA.

quainted with the moral teachings of Buddhism, which have hardly any perceptible influence over their lives. They are not candidates for saintship, nor are they seeking to attain Nirvana. They know nothing of the "Noble Eightfold Path as a rule of conduct. The sense of obligation is feeble, the consciousness of duty as an impelling motive has little, if any, determining sway. The layman's attitude to Buddhist ethics is, therefore, one of practical indifference.1 In the case of the priesthood and the candidates for Arahatship the code is one of strict asceticism, withdrawing them from contact with human life, and segregating them in a special order, in which strict celibacy, poverty, and mendicancy, attended with mystical meditation and severe struggles after a superiority to earthly environment and to the ordinary constitution of man, are characteristic features. It will be seen that in the case of laymen this superior code is entirely inapplicable and inoperative. In the case of priests and seekers after Arahatship its application involves such isolation, asceticism, and practical withdrawal from contact with society that it robs them of all capacity for social service.

There are several points in the Buddhist ethical system which deserve special notice if we are to discover its defects and recognize its incapacity to meet the social needs of man. Its

ideals are unworthy, profitless, and obscure. They some characteristics to have no reference to the development of individ

be specially noted.

ual character. There is no goal of positive attainment in sight. The result desired is negative, consisting of the suppression, elimination, and evacuation of the social relationships and the nobler aspects of manhood. Escape is the key-word, asceticism is the method, Nirvana is the goal. Existence is that which is to be escaped from, and in the process nature as revealed in the spiritual, intellectual, and physical constitution of man is to be trampled upon and stamped. out as an evil and hateful thing. Individuality, as has been noted, is not only undesirable in itself, but is a delusion, since the development of individual character is an impossibility, and even if possible would simply make man a more helpless and wearied victim of the evils of existence and the curse of rebirth. The only identity of individuality which Buddhism allows is that of an endless chain of sequences, linking cause and effect in unbroken continuance, known as the doctrine of Karma. This may be interpreted as a resistless destiny, determined by the fact that man reaps what he sows, his life here determin

1 Cf. in confirmation of this statement a series of articles by F. Becker Shawe, of Ladak, Thibet, entitled "Nine Centuries of Buddhism,” in The Missionary Review of the World, April, 1896, to August, 1896.