in which it may be said that the language in passing from the higher to the lower people is degraded, but the civilized man is not degraded because the savage attempts to speak his tongue and the power of expression of the savage is greatly improved thereby. Wherever Christian civilization comes in contact with savagery, monotheism is taught, and the people speedily learn to believe in a Great Spirit and a just God, but such belief is always more or less tainted with polytheism and other abhorrent superstitions. There is a sense in which this phase of human philosophy is degraded by passing from the higher to the lower people, but the people from whom it is taken are not lowered in culture thereby and the people by whom it is adopted are greatly advanced in culture. In all cases, activities borrowed from a higher by a lower culture result in progress.

It is a subject of frequent observation and remark that ignorant people suppose that all languages other than their own are not real languages but only jargons, and that the tones of unfamiliar languages are not much better than brutish gruntings; in like manner the unfamiliar and misunderstood habits and customs of aliens and strangers are but absurdities to the ignorant, and to such persons all human activities other than their own are but the acts of fools. Somewhat of the same nature are many current opinions of savage and barbaric life. In civilization tribal peoples have often been characterized with all the prejudice of ignorance. Now there is a cheap scholarship which goes far and wide to collect these prejudiced and ignorant statements and bases upon them a theory of savage culture. By these easy lessons it is discovered that savagery is a state of perpetual warfare; that the life of the savage is one of ceaseless bloodshed, that the men of this earliest stage of culture live but to kill and devour one another, and that infanticide is the common practice. Starting with man in this horrible estate these same scholars construct a theory of the evolution of mankind from savagery to civilization as the transition from militancy to industrialism. Such is the Spencerian philosophy of human development, and it has many adherents. Human industries, like other human activities, have had their course of evolution, and militancy itself has been developed from lowly beginnings to an advanced stage of organization. The savage tribes of mankind carried on petty warfares with clubs, spears, and bows and arrows. But these wars interrupted their peaceful pursuits only at comparatively long intervals. The wars of barbaric tribes were on a larger scale and

more destructive of life; but there were no great wars until wealth was accumulated and men were organized into nations. The great wars began with civilization, and have continued to the present time. Steadily armies have become larger, and more thoroughly organized as naval and land forces, and the land forces as infantry, artillery, and cavalry; and with the progress of civilization armies have been equipped with implements of warfare more and more destructive. Savage warfare compares with modern warfare as the bow and arrow compare with the Gatling gun; as the stone club compares with the sixteen-inch Krupp rifle. May be the nineteenth century has had greater armies than ever before existed, and these forces have been armed with more terrible implements of destruction than ever before known, and the sacrifice of human life in the nineteenth century has been greater perhaps than in any other such period of the history of the world. Warfare has had its course of evolution, as have all other human activities. That human progress has been from militancy to industrialism is an error so great that it must necessarily vitiate any system of sociology or theory of culture of which it forms a part.

The errors of the ignorant are often committed by inconsiderate travelers, who have reported that the tribes with which they met, now here, now there, were destitute of any real language; that they had a few grunts, exclamations, and jargon words, and eked these out by the use of gesture speech, and many able scholars have accepted these statements as facts. When a savage or barbaric tribe comes in contact with civilization there grows up between the two people a jargon of corrupted words derived from both languages. This jargon is always ephemeral and it rarely acquires the status of a language. Many travelers and scholars have mistaken such jargons for languages themselves and have inferred therefrom that tribal languages are exceedingly unstable. Again, the lower the grade of culture the smaller the number of people speaking one language. As we go back from civilization towards savagery, languages rapidly multiply, and this diversity of speech has strengthened some scholars in the notion that savage languages are rapidly changeable. Thus there is a tendency among philologists to depreciate savage tongues and to consider them as composed of few words and incapable of expressing any great body of thought and as rapidly changing from generation to generation. On the other hand, whenever a savage language is thoroughly studied, it is invariably found to have a co

pious vocabulary and to be highly organized by an indiscriminate variety of grammatic devices. When such languages are discovered, the difference between real savage languages and supposed savage languages is so great that at once retrogression is affirmed of them, the reasoning being something like this: "Savage languages proper are of this low class, the characteristics of which have been given us by these travelers; now, here is a language very much more highly developed therefore, the people have been degraded from some civilized state." In further support of this theory, the language itself is placed in a grade much higher than it deserves. A copious vocabulary is no evidence of high development. The law of gradation in this respect seems to be entirely misunderstood. The different thoughts possible even to savage minds are practically innumerable, and every language, even that of the savage, is capable of expressing all of the thoughts possible to the people who use the language. It is a characteristic of the languages of savages that many words are necessary to express their thoughts, while in civilized languages the same thoughts can be expressed with a smaller number of words. Given a body of thought, then, that language is the most highly developed which uses the smallest number of words for its expression. This improvement in the language, by which the fewer words can be used for the greater expression, is accomplished by the organization of the language through the development of parts of speech and the integration of the sentence. A language is high or low not by reason of the number of words which it contains but by reason of the degree of organization to which it has attained and the body of thought which it is competent to properly express. This may be made clear by an illustration from the written language of numbers. In a written language there might be a character for each of the numbers to a hundred, and to express multiples of such numbers repetitions of the characters might be necessary. The notation of such a language would thus have many characters, but it would not be highly developed. Again, the Roman system of numerals with which we are all acquainted has few characters but a very crude method of representing multiples of numbers by the use of these characters, and such a notation is of very low degree as compared with the Arabic system of notation, by which a few characters are used, the value of these depending upon their placement. In like manner in savage tongues there is a vast number of words which are exceedingly cumbrous when used in the expression of thought, from

the fact that the parts of speech are not differentiated nor the sentence organized. Usually those who devote themselves thoroughly. to the study of savage languages clearly understand their low character, while those who devote themselves to the study of the classical languages, having before them false models of excellence, seem always to exaggerate the value of the savage languages which have been thoroughly studied and to undervalue all other savage languages, holding them to be properly characterized by the ignorant travelers.

In the vast

There is yet another class of errors to be noted. commingling of peoples through the enormous development of means of transportation in later civilization, everywhere savage and barbaric peoples are associated more or less with civilized men. In this association, the lower races always borrow something of arts, institutions, languages, and also of philosophic opinions-they borrow explanations of phenomena. Now, it is a curious fact that these borrowed opinions are often unrecognized as such by scholars, and hence savage and barbaric peoples are described as entertaining opinions far beyond the grade to which their indigenous culture would carry them. These savage peoples are again and again represented as believing in one God, as if in fact they were monotheists by autogenous culture. They are also represented as believing in angels, as believing in heaven or a "happy hunting ground," and as believing many other things which pertain not to savagery and barbarism but to civilization.

To the metaphysician who juggles with formal logic, the light and the darkness can always be clearly distinguished as the light and the non-light or the darkness and the non-darkness. To the scientific man the absolute light and the absolute darkness are never found, but the phenomena of light and darkness cover infinite degrees of chiaroscuro, with absolute light on one hand and absolute darkness on the other, beyond the boundaries of observed phenomena and existent only in statement. To the scientific man it will not be necessary to explain that in defining stages of culture types only are characterized, between which infinite gradations are found, but the metaphysician will doubtless come in with his formal logic and fail to discover absolute barbarism and absolute civilization. This exposition is for scientific men who deal with phenomena-let the jugglers juggle.

Having cleared the pathway through which we are to travel in

the consideration of this subject of the errors which cast deep shadows along the course, we can proceed to define "barbarism" and "civilization" and point out the course of cultural progress involved.

THE CHANGE IN ARTS.

That which has elevated many of the tribes of mankind above savagery and into the stage which we call barbarism was the cultivation of the soil and the domestication of animals; and through these means their food-supply was greatly increased, and the more because the animals themselves were used as aids to agriculture. Yet further, horses and camels were used as means of transportation. Barbarians also have dwellings of wood and stone; often these dwellings are communal, and thus compound houses were constructed for clans and even for tribes. It is worthy of note, also, that in these houses there was a family hearth, for chimneys had been invented. Barbarians clothe themselves but slightly with furs, chiefly with textile fabrics, for they are skillful in spinning and weaving. They also have a good supply of culinary utensils, for they mould and burn clay and thus have abundant pottery. The barbarian not only has beasts of burden for means of transportation on land, but he traverses the rivers and meanders the shores of lakes and seas with boats propelled with oars. In this stage, the simple materials of nature on every hand are utilized— stone, copper, wood, shell, bone, and horn are fashioned into new shapes and often with great skill. But while they have tools they have no machinery; for example, there is no potter's wheel, no grist mill, and no saw mill.

While the materials already compounded by nature can be used by being fashioned as tools and utensils, the barbarian in his simplest estate cannot compound new materials or transmute one compound into another, for the metallurgical processes are yet undiscovered. He cannot reduce iron and copper and tin from their ores, and he cannot transform sand into glass. There was a discovery of this character which, in its ultimate results, transformed all the arts of mankind, namely, the reduction and use of iron. When iron tools were used the new implements given to man directly added to his skill and indirectly to his power. Illustrations of this fact are found on every hand. There is one which serves our purpose here because it bears so directly upon the progress of mankind towards a