CHAP.
VIII.

(3) Plants and animals.

to the few maxims laid down by the Stoics on the subject of inorganic nature which have come down to us.1 Nor need we mention here the somewhat copious writings of Posidonius,2 on the subjects of geography, history, and mathematics.

Little attention was devoted by the Stoics to the world of plants and animals. About this fact there can be no doubt, since we neither hear of any treatises by the Stoics on these subjects, nor do they appear to have advanced any peculiar views. The most prominent point is, that they divided all things in nature into four classes-the class of inorganic beings, the class of plants, that of animals, and that of rational beings. In beings belonging to the first class a simple quality (is) constitutes the bond of union; in those of the second class, a forming power (púois); in those of the third class, a soul; and in those of the fourth class, a rational soul. By means

waters, Sen. iii. 1-26; the Nile
floods, Ibid. iv. 1; Strabo, xvii. 1,
5; Cleomed. Meteor.; on tides,
Strabo, i. 3, 12; iii. 3, 5; 5, 8.

Thus colours are explained
as being pŵтo oxnμatioμol Tâs
vans (Stob. i. 364; Plac. i. 15, 5);
and sounds are spoken of as un-
dulations in the air by Plut. Plac.
iv. 19, 5; Diog. 158.

2 Conf. Bahe, Posidonii Rhod. Reliquiæ, pp. 87-184; Müller, Fragm. Hist. Græc. iii. 245.

Sext. Math. ix. 81: Twvvwμένων σωμάτων τὰ μὲν ὑπὸ ψιλῆς ἕξεως συνέχεται, τὰ δὲ ὑπὸ φύσεως, τὰ δὲ ὑπὸ ψυχῆς· καὶ ἕξεως μὲν ὡς λίθοι καὶ ξύλα, φύσεως δὲ, καθάπερ τὰ φυτὰ, ψυχῆς δὲ τὰ Spa. Plut. Virt. Mer. c. 12:

kalóλov dè TŵV ÖVTWV AVTol Té paσı kaì dâλóv čotiv őtɩ Tà μèv ἕξει διοικεῖται τὰ δὲ φύσει, τὰ δὲ ἀλόγῳ ψυχῇ, τὰ δὲ καὶ λόγον èxovσn kaì diávolav. Themist. De An. 72, b; M. Aurel. vi. 14; Philo, Qu. De. S. Immut. 298, D; Leg. Alleg. 1091, D; Incorrupt. M. 947, A; Plotin. Enn. iv. 7, 8. puois is said to consist of a moister, colder, and denser veûμa than ux; but, on this point, see Plut. Sto. Rep. 41, 1; Com. Not. 46, 2; Galen, Hipp. et Plat. τ. 3. In Diog. 139, is and νοῦς, the highest and lowest links in the series, are contrasted. Ibid. 156, there is a definition οἱ φύσις = πῦρ τεχνικὸν ὁδῷ βαδί Čov eis yéveow; and (148) another

of this division, the various branches of a science of nature were mapped out, based on a graduallyincreasing development of the powers of life. But no serious attempt was made by the Stoics to work out this thought. With the single exception of man, we know exceedingly little of their views on organic beings.'

=e&is & auTÊS KIVOVμÉVη Karà σTEρμаTIKOÙS Xoyous àπoтeλovσá τε καὶ συνέχουσα τὰ ἐξ αὐτῆς ἐν ὡρισμένοις χρόνοις καὶ τοιαῦτα δρῶσα ἀφ' οίων ἀπεκρίθη. It hardly need be repeated that the force is one and the same, which at one time appears as is, at another as φύσις. Conf. Diog. 138; Themist. 1. c.; Sext. Math. ix. 84.

The belief that blood circulates in the veins, spiritus in the arteries, which was shared by the Peripatetics, deserves to

be mentioned here, Sen. Nat.
Qu. ii. 15, 1; also the explana-
tions of sleep, death, and age in
Plut. Plac. v. 23, 4 ; the assertion
that animals are not only deficient
in reason, but in emotions, and
that even in man the emotions
are connected with the rational
soul. Posidonius, however, de-
nied this statement, and Chrys-
ippus believed that animals had
a yeμovikóv. He even discovered
in dogs traces of an unconscious
inference. Sext. Pyrrh. i. 69.

CHAP.
VIII.

CHAP.
IX.

A. The soul. (1) Materialistic nature of the soul.

CHAPTER IX.

THE STUDY OF NATURE. MAN.

THE Stoic teaching becomes peculiarly interesting,
when it begins to speak of Man; and on this sub-
ject, as on every other, its tone was decided by the
tone of the whole system. On the one hand, the
Stoic materialism could not fail to show itself most
unmistakeably in the department of anthropology;
on the other hand, the conviction that all actions.
must be referred to active forces, and all the several
active forces to one original force, could not be held
without leading to a belief in the oneness and in
the dynamical power of the soul. Not only does
it follow, as a corollary from the materialistic view
of the world, that the soul must be in its nature
corporeal, but the Stoics took pains to uphold this
view by special arguments. Whatever, they said,
influences the body, and is by it influenced in turn,
whatever is united with the body, and again se-
parated from it, must be corporeal.
can the soul be other than corporeal?

1 Cleanthes, in Nemes. Nat. Hom. p. 33, and Tert. De An. c. 5: οὐδὲν ἀσώματον συμπάσχει

How, then,
Whatever

σώματι οὐδὲ ἀσωμάτῳ σῶμα ἀλλὰ σῶμα σώματι· συμπάσχει δὲ ἡ ψυχὴ τῷ σώματι νοσοῦντι καὶ τεμ

has extension in three dimensions is corporeal; and this is the case with the soul, since it extends in three directions over the whole body. Moreover, thought and motion are due to animal life.2 Animal life is nurtured and kept in health by the breath of life.3 Experience also proves that mental qualities are propagated by natural generation, and that they must be consequently connected with a corporeal substratum.4 The mind is therefore nothing but fiery breath; and the human soul is described by the Stoics sometimes as fire, sometimes as breath, at other times, more accurately, as warm breath, diffused throughout the body, and forming a bond of union for the body," in the very same way that

νομένῳ καὶ τὸ σῶμα τῇ ψυχῇ· αἰσχυνομένης γοῦν ἐρυθρὸν γίνεται καὶ φοβουμένης ὠχρόν· σῶμα ἄρα ἡ ψυχή. Chrysippus, in Nemes. p. 34: ὁ θάνατος ἐστι χωρισμός ψυχῆς ἀπὸ σώματος· οὐδὲν δὲ ἀσώματον ἀπὸ σώματος χωρίζεται οὐδὲ γὰρ ἐφάπτεται σώματος ἀσώματον· ἡ δὲ ψυχὴ καὶ ἐφάπτεται καὶ χωρίζεται τοῦ σώματος· σῶμα ἄρα ἡ ψυχή.

1 Nemes. Nat. Hom. c. 2.

2 Diog. 157; Cic. N. D. ii. 14, 36. • Zeno, in Tertull. 1. c.: Quo digresso animal emoritur: consito autem spiritu digresso animal emoritur: ergo consitus spiritus corpus est, consitus autem spiritus anima est : ergo corpus est anima.

• Cleanthes, in Nemes. 1. c. 32 : οὐ μόνον ὅμοιοι τοῖς γονεῦσι γινόμεθα, κατὰ τὸ σῶμα, ἀλλὰ καὶ κατὰ τὴν ψυχὴν, τοῖς πάθεσι, τοῖς ἤθεσι, ταῖς διαθέσεσι· σώματος δὲ τὸ ὅμοιον καὶ ἀνόμενον, οὐχὶ δὲ ἀσώματον· σῶμα ἄρα ἡ ψυχή.

5 Chrysippus, in Galen, Hipp. et Plut. iii. 1: ἡ ψυχὴ πνεῦμά ἐστι σύμφυτον ἡμῖν συνεχές παντὶ τῷ σώματι διῆκον. Zeno. Macrob. Somn. i. 14: Zenon [dixit animam] concretum corpori spiritum .. Boëthos (probably the Stoic is meant) ex aëre et igne [constare]. Diog. in Galen, ii. 8: τὸ κινοῦν τὸν ἄνθρωπον τὰς κατὰ προαίρεσιν κινήσεις ψυχική τίς ἐστιν ἀναθυμίασις. Cic. Nat. D. iii. 14, 36; Tusc. i. 9, 19; 18, 42 : Zeno considers the soul to be fire; Panatius believes that it is burning air. Diog. L. vii. 156, on the authority of Zeno, Antipater, Posidonius, says that it is πνεῦμα σύμφυτον, πνεῦμα ἔνθερμον. Stob. Εcl. i. 796 (Plut. Plae. iv. 3, 3). Cornut. N. D. p. 8: καὶ γὰρ αἱ ἡμέτεραι ψυχαὶ πῦρ εἰσι. Ar. Didymus, in Eus. Pr. Εr. xv. 20, 1: Zeno calls the soul αἴσθησιν ἢ ἀναθυμίασιν (should be αἰσθητικὴν ἀναθυμίασιν). Ps. Plut.

CHAP.

IX

CHAP.
IX.

the soul of the world is diffused throughout the world, and forms a bond of union for the world.' This warm breath was believed to be connected with the blood; and hence the soul was said to be fed by vapours from the blood, just as the stars are fed by vapours from the earth.2

The same hypothesis was also used to explain the origin of the soul. One part of the soul was believed to be transmitted to the young in the seed.3 From the part so transmitted there arises, by development within the womb, first the soul of a plant; and this

Vit. Hom. c. 127: Thy Vuxnv oi Στωϊκοὶ ὁρίζονται πνεῦμα συμφυές kal ȧvatvμíaoiv alσONTiKhν àνATтоμένην ἀπὸ τῶν ἐν σώματι ὑγρῶν. Longin. in Eus. Ibid. 21, 1 and 3. Alex. De An. 127, b: oi ànd ts στοῖς πνεῦμα αὐτὴν λέγοντες εἶναι συγκείμενόν πως ἔκ τε πυρὸς καὶ ἀέρος. Since, however, every Trevμa is not a soul, a soul is stated to be πνεῦμα πὼς ἔχον (Plotin. Enn. iv. 7, 4); and the distinctive quality of the soulelement is its greater warmth and rarity. Plut. Sto. Rep. 41, 2: Chrysippus considers the ψυχή το | be ἆραιότερον πνεῦμα τῆς φύσεως i Kal λеTтоμеρÉσTepov. Similarly, Galen, Qu. An. Mores, c. 4: The Stoics say that both puris and yuxǹ is veuμa, but that the TVEUμa is thick and cold in puσis, dry and warm in ψυχή.

a point vindicated by the Stoics against the Epicureans. Posid. in Achil. Tat. Isag. c. 13; Sext. Math. ix. 72.

2 Galen. Hippocr. et Plat. ii. 8, on the authority of Zeno. Cleanthes, Chrysippus, and Diogenes; Longin. in Eus. Pr. Εν. xv. 21, 3; M. Aurel. v. 33; vi. 15; Ps. Plut. Vit. Hom. 127.

...

3 Zeno described the seed as τνεîμа μeď vyрoû vʊxôs μépos kal ἀπόσπασμα μίγμα τῶν τῆς xs μepŵr (Arius Didymus, in Eus. Pr. Ev. xv. 20, 1), or as σύμμιγμα καὶ κέρασμα τῶν τῆς ψυχῆς δυνάμεων (Plut. Coh. Ir. 15). See also Chrysip. in Diog. 159, and Tertullian, De An. c. 27. According to Sphærus, in Diog. 159, the seed is formed by separation from all parts of the body, and can consequently produce all.

Panatius (in Cie. Tusc. i. 31, 79) proves, from the mental similarity between parents and children, that the soul comes into existence by generation. For the mother's share in producing the soul, see Ar. Did.