parties. The Milesians refused to admit their former despot into their town; and the Ionians in general would not receive him as their leader. At length he obtained eight galleys from Lesbos, with which he sailed towards Byzantium, and carried on piracies as well against the Grecian as the barbarian vessels. This unprincipled adventurer met with a traitor's death. Having landed on the coast of Mysia to reap the standing corn round Atarneus, he was surprized by a Persian force and made prisoner. Being carried to Sardis, Artaphernes at once caused him to be crucified, and sent his head to Darius, who ordered it to be honourably buried, condemning the ignominious execution of the man who had once saved the life of the Great King.

§ 8. The death of Histiæus happened after the subjection of the Ionians; and their fall now claims our attention. In the sixth year of the revolt (B.c. 495), when several Grecian cities had already been taken by the Persians, Artaphernes resolved to besiege Miletus by sea and by land, since the capture of this city was sure to be followed by the submission of all the others. For this purpose he concentrated near Miletus all his land-forces, and ordered the Phoenician fleet to sail towards the city. While he was making these preparations, the Pan-Ionic council assembled to deliberate upon the best means of meeting the threatening danger. As they had not sufficient strength to meet the Persian army in the field, it was resolved to leave Miletus to its own defences on the land side, and to embark all their forces on board their ships. The fleet was ordered to assemble at Ladé, then a small island near Miletus, but now joined to the coast by the alluvial deposits of the Mæander. It consisted of 353 ships, while the Phoenician fleet numbered 600 sail. But notwithstanding their numerical superiority, the Persian generals were afraid to risk an engagement with the combined fleet of the Ionians, whose nautical skill was well known to them. They therefore ordered the despots, who had been driven out of the Grecian cities at the commencement of the revolt, and were now serving in the Persian fleet, to endeavour to persuade their countrymen to desert the common cause. Each of them accordingly made secret overtures to his fellow-citizens, promising them pardon if they submitted, and threatening them with the severest punishment in case of refusal. But these proposals were all unanimously rejected.

Meantime great want of discipline prevailed in the Ionian fleet. There was no general commander of the whole armament; the men, though eager for liberty, were impatient of restraint, and spent the greater part of the day in unprofitable talk under the tents they had erected on the shore. In a council

of the commanders, Dionysius of Phocæa, a man of energy and ability, pointed out the perils which they ran, and promised them certain victory if they would place themselves under his guidance. Being intrusted with the supreme command, Dionysius ordered the men on board the ships, and kept them constantly engaged in practising all kinds of nautical manœuvres. For seven days in succession they endured this unwonted work beneath the burning heat of a summer's sun; but on the eighth they broke out into open mutiny, and asked, “why they should any longer obey a Phocæan braggart, who had brought only three ships to the common cause?" Leaving their ships, they again dispersed over the island and sought the shade of their pleasant tents. There was now less order and discipline than before. The Samian leaders became alarmed at the prospect before them; and repenting that they had rejected the proposals made to them by their exiled despot, they re-opened communications with him, and agreed to desert during the battle.

The Persian commanders, confident of victory, no longer hesitated to attack the Ionian fleet. The Greeks, not suspecting treachery, drew up their ships in order of battle; but just as the two fleets were ready to engage, the Samian ships sailed away. Their example was followed by the Lesbians, and as the panic spread, by the greater part of the fleet. There was, however,

one brilliant exception. The hundred ships of the Chians, though left almost alone, refused to fly, and fought with distinguished bravery against the enemy, till they were overpowered by superior numbers.

§ 9. The defeat of the Ionian fleet at Ladé decided the fate of the war. The city of Miletus was soon afterwards taken by storm, and was treated with signal severity. Most of the males were slain; and the few who escaped the sword were carried with the women and children into captivity, and were finally settled at Ampé, a town near the mouth of the Tigris. The fall of this great Ionic city excited the liveliest sympathy at Athens. In the following year the poet Phrynichus, who had made the capture of Miletus the subject of a tragedy, and brought it upon the stage, was sentenced by the Athenians to pay a fine of a thousand drachmæ "for having recalled to them their own misfortunes."

The other Greek cities in Asia and the neighbouring islands, which had not yet fallen into the hands of the Persians, were treated with equal severity. The islands of Chios, Lesbos and Tenedos were swept of their inhabitants; and the Persian fleet sailed up to the Hellespont and Propontis, carrying with it fire and sword. The inhabitants of Byzantium and Chalcedon

did not await its arrival, but sailed away to Mesembria; and the Athenian Miltiades only escaped falling into the power of the Persians by a rapid flight to Athens.

The subjugation of Ionia was now complete. This was the third time that the Asiatic Greeks had been conquered by a foreign power; first, by the Lydian Croesus; secondly, by the generals of Cyrus; and lastly, by those of Darius. It was from the last that they suffered most; and they never fully recovered their former prosperity. As soon as the Persians had satiated their vengeance, Artaphernes introduced various regulations for the government of their country. Thus he caused a new survey of the country to be made, and fixed the amount of tribute which each district was to pay to the Persian government; and his other measures were calculated to heal the wounds which had been lately inflicted with such barbarity upon the Greeks.

81. Expedition of Mardonius into Greece. § 2. Preparations of Darius for a second invasion of Greece. Heralds sent to the leading Grecian states to demand earth and water. § 3. Invasion of Greece by the Persians under Datis and Artaphernes. Conquest of the Cyclades and Eretria. 4. Preparations at Athens to resist the Persians. History of Miltiades. § 5. Debate among the ten Athenian Generals. Resolution to give battle to the Persians. § 6. Battle of Marathon. §7. Movements of the Persians after the battle. § 8. Effect of the battle of Marathon upon the Athenians. §9. Glory of Miltiades. §10. His unsuccessful expedition to Paros. § 11. His trial, condemnation, and death. 12. History of Ægina. § 13. War between Athens and Egina. 14. Athens becomes a maritime power. § 15. Rivalry of Themistocles and Aristides. Ostracism of the latter.

1. DARIUS had not forgotten his vow to take vengeance upon Athens. Shortly after the suppression of the Ionic revolt, he appointed Mardonius to succeed Artaphernes in the government of the Persian provinces bordering upon the Egean. Mardonius was a Persian noble of high rank, who had lately married the king's daughter, and was distinguished by a love of glory. Darius placed at his command a large armament, with injunctions to bring to Susa those Athenians and Eretrians who had insulted the authority of the Great King. Mardonius lost no time in crossing the Hellespont, and commenced his march through Thrace and Macedonia, subduing, as he went along, the tribes

which had not yet submitted to the Persian power. Meanwhile he ordered the fleet to double the promontory of Mount Athos, and join the land forces at the head of the Gulf of Therma. But one of the hurricanes, which frequently blow off this dangerous coast, overtook the Persian fleet, destroyed three hundred vessels, and drowned or dashed upon the rocks twenty thousand men. Mardonius himself was not much more fortunate. In his passage through Macedonia, he was attacked at night by the Brygians, an independent Thracian tribe, who slaughtered a great portion of his army. He remained in the country long enough to reduce this people to submission; but his forces were so weakened, that he could not proceed farther. He led his army back across the Hellespont, and returned to the Persian court, covered with shame and grief. Thus ended the first expedition of the Persians against the Grecian states in Europe (B.c. 492).

§ 2. The failure of this expedition did not shake the resolution of Darius. On the contrary, it only made him the more anxious for the conquest of Greece; and Hippias was constantly near him to keep alive his resentment against Athens. He began to make preparations for another attempt on a still larger scale, and meantime sent heralds to most of the Grecian states to demand from each earth and water as the symbol of submission. This he probably did in order to ascertain the amount of resistance he was likely to experience. Such terror had the Persians inspired by their recent conquest of Ionia, that a large number of the Grecian cities at once complied with the demand. But at Athens and at Sparta the heralds met with a very different reception. So indignant were the citizens of these states at the insolent demand, that the Athenians cast the herald into a deep pit, and the Spartans threw him into a well, bidding him take earth and water from thence.

§3. Among the states which had yielded submission to the envoy of Darius, was the island of Ægina, then the first maritime power in Greece. It was, however, as much hatred of the Athenians, as fear of the Persian monarch, which had led the Æginetans, to take this step. They had been at war for some years past with the Athenians, and were now ready to avail themselves of the Persian power for the purpose of crushing their obnoxious rival. The Athenians, on the other hand, sent ambassadors to Sparta, accusing the Æginetans of having betrayed the common cause of Greece by giving earth and water to the barbarians, and calling upon Sparta, as the leading state of Hellas, to punish the offenders. This proceeding deserves particular notice. It is the first time in Grecian history that the Greeks are represented as having a common political cause, and recognizing