B.C. 343. Dionysius passed the remainder of his life at Corinth, where he is said to have displayed some remnants of his former luxury by the fastidious taste which he showed in the choice of his viands, unguents, dress, and furniture; whilst his literary inclinations manifested themselves in teaching the public singers and actors, and in opening a school for boys.

Hicetas still had possession of Achradina ;* and, since he saw that his selfish plans were on the point of failure, he now called in the aid of the whole Carthaginian force for the reduction of Ortygia. The harbour of Syracuse was occupied by 150 Carthaginian ships, whilst an army of 60,000 Carthaginians was admitted within the walls of Syracuse. But while Hicetas and Magon the Carthaginian general marched with a great part of their force to attack the town of Catana, whence the garrison of Ortygia was supplied with provisions, Neon, the Corinthian commander in Ortygia, watching a favourable opportunity, made a sally, defeated the blockading force on all sides, and even obtained possession of the suburb of Achradina. This unexpected success raised the suspicions of Magon, who, fearing that Hicetas meant to betray him, resolved to quit the island, and sailed away with all his forces to Carthage. Notwithstanding the defection of his powerful ally, Hicetas attempted to retain possession of that part of Syracuse which was still in his power, but he was unable to resist the attack of Timoleon, and was obliged to abandon the city and return to Leontini.

§ 11. Thus was the apparently hopeless enterprise of Timoleon crowned with entire success in an incredibly short space of time. It now remained for him to achieve a still greater victorya victory over himself. He was master of Syracuse and of Ortygia, with all its means and resources for establishing a despotism in his own favour; but his first public act was to destroy those impregnable fortifications which would have rendered such a usurpation feasible. All the Syracusans were invited to assist in demolishing the walls of Ortygia, and the monument of the elder Dionysius, the record of their former slavery; and on the ruins of these dreaded works Timoleon caused courts of justice to be erected, at once the pledge and instruments of equal laws and future freedom.

Much, however, remained to be done to restore Syracuse to its former prosperity, and Sicily in general to a state of liberty and order. With this view all exiles were invited to return; whilst Corinth was intreated to co-operate in the work of restoration and to become a second time the founder of Syracuse. Two

* See plan of Syracuse, p. 337.

leading Corinthian citizens were accordingly despatched to assist Timoleon and the Syracusans in recasting their constitution, which was remodelled on the basis of the laws of Diocles.* To remedy the poverty into which Syracuse had been plunged by its misfortunes, new colonists were invited to enrol themselves; and thus a body of 10,000 citizens, including the Syracusan exiles, was collected at Corinth and transported to Syracuse. But larger bodies of Greeks soon poured in from Italy, so that altogether the immigrants are reckoned at 60,000.

§ 12. Meantime, Timoleon was not idle. He attacked Hicetas in Leontini, and compelled him to capitulate. But the submission of Hicetas was a mere feint in order to gain time for calling in the Carthaginians; who highly indignant at the precipitate retreat of Magon, were anxious to wipe out the disgrace by some signal act of vengeance. An army of 70,000 men was accordingly disembarked at Lilybæum. To meet this formidable force Timoleon could raise only about 12,000 men; and on his march against the enemy this small force was still further reduced by the defection of about 1000 of his mercenaries. With the remainder Timoleon marched westwards into the Carthaginian province. As he was approaching the Crimesus, or Crimissus, a small river which flows into the Hypsa on the southwestern coast of Sicily, he was saluted by one of those omens which so frequently either raised the courage of the Greeks or sunk them into despondency. The army was met by several mules bearing loads of parsley, the usual ornament of tombs. Perceiving the alarm of his soldiers, Timoleon, with great presence of mind, gave the omen another and a favourable direction. Crowns of parsley were also employed to reward the victors in the Isthmian games; and Timoleon, seizing a handful and making a wreath for his own head, exclaimed, "Behold our Corinthian symbol of victory; its unexpected appearance here affords an unequivocal omen of success." These timely words reanimated his men, who now followed him with alacrity. In the battle which ensued Timoleon appeared to have been again favoured by the gods. In the hottest of the fight a terrific storm of hail, rain, and thunder, and lightning beat right in the faces of the Carthaginians, and by the confusion which it created enabled the Greeks to put them to the rout. The same cause occasioned the death of thousands in their retreat, for the river Crimesus, swollen by the sudden rain, carried away a great part of those who attempted to recross it. Ten thousand Carthaginians are said to have perished in the battle, while 15,000 more were

* See p. 487.

made prisoners. The remainder fled without stopping to Lilybæum, whence they immediately embarked for Carthage, not without a dread that the anger of the gods would still pursue them at sea.

§ 13. The victory of the Crimesus brought Timoleon such an accession of power and influence, that he now resolved to carry into execution his project of expelling all the despots from Sicily. The Carthaginians sent another expedition to assist these despots, but they were unable to effect anything. and were glad to conclude a treaty with Timoleon in B.C. 338. While the war still continued with the Carthaginians, Timoleon obtained possession of the town of Leontini, as well as of the person of Hicetas, whom he caused to be put to death. mercus, despot of Catana, was next deposed and executed by order of the public assembly at Syracuse, and the other despots in Sicily soon shared his fate.

Ma

§ 14. Having thus effected the liberation of the island, Timoleon immediately laid down his power. All the reward he received for his great services was a house in Syracuse, and some landed property in the neighbourhood of the city. He now sent for his family from Corinth, and became a Syracusan citizen. He continued, however, to retain, though in a private station, the greatest influence in the state. During the latter part of his life, though he was totally deprived of sight, yet when important affairs were discussed in the assembly, it was customary to send for Timoleon, who was drawn in a car into the middle of the theatre amid the shouts and affectionate greetings of the assembled citizens. When the tumult of his reception had subsided he listened patiently to the debate. The opinion which he pronounced was usually ratified by the vote of the assembly; and he then left the theatre amidst the same cheers which had

greeted his arrival. A truly gratifying position! and one which must have conferred on Timoleon more real happiness than the possession of the most absolute power could ever have bestowed. In this happy and honoured condition he breathed his last in B.C. 336, a few years after the battle of Crimesus. He was splendidly interred at the public cost, whilst the tears of the whole Syracusan population followed him to the grave.

§ 1. State of Greece. § 2. Description of Macedonia. § 3. Kings of Macedon. 4. Character of Philip. § 5. He subdues the Pæonians and Illyrians. 86. His military discipline. §7. Capture of Amphipolis, and foundation of Philippi. § 8. The Social War. § 9. Commencement of the Sacred War. The Phocians seize Delphi. 10. Successes of the Phocians. § 11. Philip interferes in the war. Conquers Thessaly. 12. Philip in Thrace. Demosthenes. § 13. The Olynthian War. 14. Character of Phocion. Fall of Olynthus. §15. Progress of the Sacred War. Embassy to Philip. § 16. Conquest of Phocis by Philip. Sentence of the Amphictyonic Council on the Phocians.

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1. THE internal dissensions of Greece, which have formed the subject of the two preceding books, are now about to produce their natural fruits; and in the present book we shall have to

relate the downfall of her independence and her subjugation by a foreign power. We have first of all seen Sparta exercising a sort of empire of opinion over the other Grecian states, and looked up to by them with willing obedience as their traditional and chosen leader. After the Persian wars Athens contests the palm with her, and, through the confederacy of Delos, becomes virtually the head of Greece in material power, if not recognised as such by the public opinion of the nation. But Sparta and most of the other Grecian states, from jealousy of the Athenian supremacy, league together for the purpose of crushing Athens. After a long struggle, Athens falls into the power of her enemies; and Sparta becomes the ruler of Greece. The power which she has thus acquired, she exercises with harshness, cruelty, and corruption; her own allies desert her; and in little more than thirty years after the battle of Ægospotami she is in her turn not only deprived of the supremacy, but even stripped of a considerable portion of her own ancient territory, chiefly through the power and influence of Thebes. For a little while Thebes becomes the predominant state; but she owes her position solely to the abilities and genius of Epaminondas, and after his death sinks down to her former level. The state of exhaustion into which Greece had been thrown by these protracted intestine dissensions is already shown by her having condescended to throw herself at the feet of Persia, and to make her hereditary enemy the arbiter of her quarrels. Athens alone, during the comparative state of tranquillity afforded her through the mutual disputes of her neighbours, has succeeded in regaining some portion of her former strength, and becomes the leading power in the struggle which now threatens to overwhelm the whole of Greece. This new danger comes from an obscure northern state, hitherto overlooked and despised, and considered as altogether barbarous, and without the pale of Grecian civilization.

§ 2. Macedonia-for that is the country of which we are speaking-had various limits at different times. Properly, however, it may be regarded as separated from Thessaly on the south by the Cambunian mountains; from Illyria on the west by the great mountain chain called Scardus and Bernus, and which, under the name of Pindus, also separates Thessaly from Epirus; from Mosia on the north by the mountains called Orbelus and Scomius; and from Thrace on the east by the river Strymon. It is drained by three rivers of considerable size, the Axius, the Lydias, and the Haliacmon; each of which has its separate valley, formed by two mountain ranges running southeastwards from the mountains that divide Illyria and Macedonia.