His motives, it must be allowed, seem rather to have sprung from the love of personal glory and the excitement of conquest, than from any wish to benefit his subjects. The attention which he occasionally devoted to commerce, to the foundation of new cities, and to other matters of a similar kind, form rather episodes in his history, than the real objects at which his aims were directed; and it was not by his own prudence, but through the weariness of his army, that his career of conquest was at length arrested, which he wished to prosecute before he had consolidated what he had already won. Yet on the whole his achievements, though they undoubtedly occasioned great partial misery, must be regarded as beneficial to the human race; the families of which, if it were not for some such movements, would stagnate in solitary listlessness and poverty. By the conquests of Alexander the two continents were put into closer communication with one another; and both, but particularly Asia, were the gainers. The language, the arts, and the literature of Greece, were introduced into the East; and after the death of Alexander Greek kingdoms were formed in the western parts of Asia, which continued to exist for many generations.

The Group of Niobe. From the collection at Florence.

CHAPTER XLV.

IPSUS.

§ 1. Division of the provinces after Alexander's death. § 2. Retrospective view of Grecian affairs. Revolt of Agis. Demosthenes de Corona. 3. Arrival of Harpalus at Athens. Accusation and exile of Demosthenes. § 4. The Lamian war. Defeat of Antipater, and siege of Lamia. 85. Defeat and death of Leonnatus. Battle of Crannon. End of the Lamian war. § 6. Death of Demosthenes. Ambitious projects of Perdiccas. His invasion of Egypt, and death. § 7. Fresh division of the provinces at Triparadisus. Death of Antipater. Polysperchon becomes regent, and conciliates the Grecian states. Death of Phocion. § 8. War between Polysperchon and Cassander. Ill success of Polysperchon. Cassander becomes master of Macedonia, and puts Olympias to death. § 9. Coalition against Antigonus. Peace concluded in B.C. 311. Murder of Roxana and her § 10. Renewal of the war against Antigonus. Demetrius Poliorcetes expels the Macedonians from Athens. § 11. Demetrius Poliorcetes at Cyprus. Battle of Salamis. Attempt on Egypt. Siege of Rhodes. 12. Battle of Ipsus, and death of Antigonus.

son.

1. THE unexpected death of Alexander threatened to involve both his extensive dominions and his army in inextricable confusion. On the day after his death a military council assembled to decide on the course to be pursued. Alexander on his deathbed is said to have given his signet-ring to Perdiccas, but he had left no legitimate heir to his throne, though his wife Roxana was pregnant. In the discussions which ensued in the council,

Perdiccas assumed a leading part; and after much debate, and a quarrel between the cavalry and infantry, which at first threatened the most serious consequences, an arrangement was at length effected on the following basis: That Philip Arrhidæus, a young man of weak intellect, the half-brother of Alexander (being the son of Philip by a Thessalian woman named Philinna), should be declared king, reserving however to the child of Roxana, if a son should be born, a share in the sovereignty: that the government of Macedonia and Greece should be divided between Antipater and Craterus: that Ptolemy, who was reputed to be connected with the royal family, should preside over Egypt and the adjacent countries: that Antigonus should have Phrygia Proper, Lycia, and Pamphylia: that the Hellespontine Phrygia should be assigned to Leonnatus: that Eumenes should have the satrapy of Paphlagonia and Cappadocia, which countries, however, still remained to be subdued: and that Thrace should be committed to Lysimachus. Perdiccas reserved for himself the chiliarchy, or command of the horse-guards, the post before held by Hephæstion, in virtue of which he became the guardian of Philip Arrhidæus, the nominal sovereign. It was not for some time after these arrangements had been completed that the last rites were paid to Alexander's remains. They were conveyed to Alexandria, and deposited in a cemetery which afterwards became the burial-place of the Ptolemies. Nothing could exceed the magnificence of the funeral car, which was adorned with ornaments of massive gold, and so heavy, that it was more than a year in being conveyed from Babylon to Syria, though drawn by 84 mules. In due time Roxana was delivered of a son, to whom the name of Alexander was given, and who was declared the partner of Arrhidæus in the empire. Roxana had previously inveigled Statira and her sister Drypetis to Babylon, where she caused them to be secretly assassinated.

§ 2. It is now necessary to take a brief retrospective glance at the affairs of Greece. Three years after Alexander had quitted Europe, the Spartans made a vigorous effort to throw off the Macedonian yoke. They were joined by most of the Peloponnesian states, but the Athenians kept aloof. In B.c. 331, the Spartans took up arms under the command of their king, Agis; but though they met with some success at first, they were finally defeated with great slaughter by Antipater, near Megalopolis. Agis fell in the battle, and the chains of Greece were riveted more firmly than ever. This victory, and the successes of Alexander in the East, encouraged the Macedonian party in Athens to take active measures against Demosthenes; and Æschines trumped up an old charge against him which had lain dormant

for several years. Soon after the battle of Chæronea, Ctesiphon had proposed that Demosthenes should be presented with a golden crown in the theatre during the great Dionysiac festival, on account of the services he had conferred upon his country. For proposing this decree Eschines indicted Ctesiphon; but though the latter was the nominal defendant, it was Demosthenes who was really put upon his trial. The case was decided in 330 B.C., and has been immortalized by the memorable and still extant speeches of Eschines " Against Ctesiphon," and of Demosthenes "On the Crown." Eschines, who did not obtain a fifth part of the votes, and consequently became himself liable to a penalty, was so chagrined at his defeat that he retired to Rhodes.

§3. In B.C. 325, Harpălus arrived in Athens. Harpalus was a great favourite with Alexander, as he had embraced his side during his quarrel with his father, Philip. When Alexander, after the conquest of Persia and Media, determined to push on into the interior of Asia, in pursuit of Darius, he left Harpalus at Ecbatana, with 6000 Macedonian troops, in charge of the royal treasures. From thence he removed to Babylon, and appears to have held the important satrapy of that province as well as the administration of the treasury. It was here that, during the absence of Alexander in India, he gave himself up to the most extravagant luxury and profusion, squandering the treasures entrusted to him, at the same time that he alienated the people subject to his rule, by his lustful excesses and extortions. He had probably thought that Alexander would never return from the remote regions of the East into which he had penetrated; but when he at length learnt that the king was on his march back to Susa, and had visited with unsparing rigour those of his officers who had been guilty of any excesses during his absence, he at once saw that his only resource was in flight. Collecting together all the treasures which he could, and assembling a body of 6000 mercenaries, he hastened to the coast of Asia, and from thence crossed over to Attica. He seems to have reckoned on a favourable reception at Athens, as during the time of his prosperity he had made the city a large present of corn, in return for which he had received the right of citizenship. At first, however, the Athenians refused to receive him; but bribes administered to some of the principal orators induced them to alter their determination. Such a step was tantamount to an act of hostility against Macedonia itself; and accordingly Antipater called upon the Athenians to deliver up Harpalus, and to bring to trial those who had accepted his bribes. The Athenians did not venture to disobey these demands. Harpalus was

put into confinement, but succeeded in making his escape from prison. Demosthenes was among the orators who were brought to trial for corruption. He was declared to be guilty, and was condemned to pay a fine of 50 talents. Not being able to raise that sum, he was thrown into prison; but he contrived to make his escape, and went into exile. There are, however, good grounds for doubting his guilt; and it is more probable that he fell a victim to the implacable hatred of the Macedonian party. Upon quitting Athens Demosthenes resided chiefly at Ægina or Træezen, in sight of his native land, and whenever he looked towards her shores it was observed that he shed tears.

§ 4. When the news of Alexander's death reached Athens, the anti-Macedonian party, which, since the exile of Demosthenes, was led by Hyperides, carried all before it. The people in a decree declared their determination to support the liberty of Greece; a fleet of 240 triremes was ordered to be equipped; all citizens under 40 years of age were commanded to enrol themselves for service; and Leosthènes was directed to levy an army of mercenaries. Envoys were despatched to all the Grecian states to announce the determination of Athens, and to exhort them to struggle with her for their independence. This call was responded to in the Peloponnesus only by the smaller states, whilst Sparta, Arcadia, and Achaia kept aloof. In northern Greece the confederacy was joined by most of the states except the Boeotians; and Leosthenes was appointed commander-inIchief of the allied forces.

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Phocion, as usual, was opposed to this war, thinking the forces of Athens wholly inadequate to sustain it. Leosthenes scoffed at him, and asked him What he had ever done for his country, during the long time that he was general?" “Do you reckon it nothing," answered Phocion, "that the Athenians are buried in the sepulchres of their forefathers?" And when Leosthenes continued his pompous harangues, Phocion said: Young man, your speeches resemble cypress-trees, which are indeed large and lofty, but produce no fruit." "Tell us, then," interrupted Hyperides, "what will be the proper time for the Athenians to make war?" Phocion answered: "Not till young men keep within the bounds of decorum, the rich contribute with liberality, and the orators desist from robbing the people."

The allied army assembled in the neighbourhood of Thermopylæ. Antipater now advanced from the north, and offered battle in the vale of the Spercheus; but being deserted by his Thessalian cavalry, who went over to his opponents during the heat of the engagement, he was obliged to retreat, and threw himself into Lamia, a strong fortress on the Malian gulf. Leos