changes in temperature favor the development of rust in cereals but usually this has been attributed to the indirect influence of cold in causing a deposit of dew in which the spores could germinate. In the light of these experiments this explanation can hardly be the true one. Spores which refused to germinate after lying in water several days germinated readily after exposure to cold. It would seem as if the cold were capable of stimulating the spores to germinate only when the latter have been rendered receptive by exposure to rainy weather, but further experiments and observations are necessary. It is at least certain that the spores of Ecidium berberidis, which germinated badly after cooling, were gathered in dry weather, while those which germinated abundantly after cooling were gathered (on three different occasions) after several rainy days. The fungi tried by Dr. Eriksson were Aecidium berberidis, Ae. rhamni, Ae. magelhanicum, Peridermium strobi, Uredo glumarum, U. alchemilla, U. graminis and U. coronata. The original paper, entitled Ueber die Förderung der Pilzsporenkeimung durch Kälte, may be consulted in Centralblatt fur Bakteriologie und Parasitenkunde, Allg., Bd. I, p. 557.-ERWIN F. SMITH.

Botany at the British Association.-The presidential address of W. T. Thistleton Dyer before the new Section K (Botany) of the British Association at the Ipswich meeting (Nature, Sept. 26, 1895) is an exceedingly well written and interesting paper and one likely to obtain a wide reading. It deals with such topics as the following: Retrospect, Henslow, botanical teaching, museum arrangement, old school of natural history, modern school, nomenclature, publications, paleobotany, vegetable physiology, assimilation, and protoplasmic chemistry. The two and a half columns of sensible remarks on botanical nomenclature are specially commendable to American readers, as also what is said on teaching and in the last three topics of the address. It is certainly a surprise to learn that cramming for examinations from printed texts should be so largely taking the place of the careful study of plant phenomena in many English schools, the tendency in this country of recent years being happily in the other direction.-ERWIN F. SMITH.

Nitrifying Organisms.-Messrs. Burri and Stutzer, of the agricultural experimental station in Bonn, have discovered a bacillus (See Centrb. f. Bak. u. Par. Allg., Bd. I, No. 20-21, 1895) capable of changing nitrites into nitrates and in many respects resembling Winogradsky's organism, but which grows readily in bouillon and on gelatine. This bacillus is much larger than the measurements given by Wino

gradsky; like his it is incapable of converting salts of ammonia into nitrate, but unlike his is motile (when taken from colonies on gelatine or silicates), stains readily, causes slow liquefaction of gelatine, and is not yellowish but varies from colorless to bluish when grown on sillicates. The chemical activity is almost exactly the same as that of Winogradsky's bacillus and these authors, who have been studying the subject for two years, seem to think that it may after all turn out to be the same organism, the differences being less important than would seem at first sight, and resting perhaps on incomplete observations. The most important distinction appears to be the ability of this organism to grow on organic substances, but it does not appear from Winogradsky's publications whether he tried to transfer his organism from sillicate-plate cultures to bouillon, or gelatine, and failed.-ERWIN F. SMITH.

Relation of Sugars to the Growth of Bacteria.-Unquestionably the most discriminating and important paper that has yet appeared on this subject is a recent one, Ueber die Bedeutung des Zuckers in Kulturmedien für Bakterien (Centrb. f. Bak. u. Par., Med., Bd. XVIII, No. 1), by Dr. Theobald Smith, now of Harvard. Reference is made to the literature of the subject but this is contradictory and many of Dr. Smith's interesting conclusions are largely or wholly the result of his own laborious and brilliant researches. The propositions are stated clearly and it is safe to say that hereafter no one will undertake the study of bacterial fermentation and gas production without first consulting this paper. The author's summary is as follows, but many things are not mentioned in this and the whole paper will repay the careful perusal of all who have groped about in this field of bacteriology (1) In ordinary meat bouillon, souring and gas formation are only observed when sugar is present. Dextrose is the sugar most commonly attacked and muscle sugar is probably identical with it. (2) The formation of acid results from the breaking up of the sugar; the formation of alkali in the presence of oxygen results, on the contrary, from the multiplication of the bacteria themselves. So far as tested, the production of acid is common to all anærobic bacteria (facultative or obligate). (3) Facultative anærobiosis is made possible by the presence of sugar. (4) Rauschbrand and tetanus bacilli grew in fermentation tubes only when sugar was present. In test tubes containing the same sugar bouillon multiplication was never seen. (5) As far as tested, all gas-forming species produce along with CO, an explosive gas. (6) Souring as well as the production of gas are valuable diagnostic

characters, when at least three sorts of sugar are tested (with exclusion of muscle sugar). (7) Not only must the formation of gas be determined but also the progress of the same, the total quantity, and the quantity of CO. (8) For the differentiation of species and varieties it is of value to determine by titration the total amount of acid in 1 per cent sugar bouillon, as well as the germicidal power of such cultures on the bacteria themselves. (9) The division of bacteria into acid and alkali producers must be given up and the conditions govering the production of acid investigated more critically for each species. (10) The existence of fermentable carbohydrates in the digestive tract and in the fluids of the body is probably very favorable to the establishment and multiplication of pathogenic bacteria (both facultative anaerobic and obligate, especially the latter).-ERWIN F. SMITH.

Algal Parasite on Coffee.-Under the title Cephaleurus coffeœ, eine neue parasitische Chroolepidee, Dr. F. A. F. C. Went describes in Centrb. f. Bak. u. Par., Allg., Bd. I, No. 18-19, 1895, p. 681, an alga which he has found attacking the Liberian coffee at Kagok-Tegal in Java. This parasite appears on the leaves and berries in the form of round orange-brown spots which look bristly to the naked eye. The alga not only forms a thallus on the surface but sends its threads deep into the intercellular spaces of the host. The presence of the parasite in and on the leaf causes an interesting, protective hypertrophy of the surrounding tissue, the further progress of the alga being soon limited by a dense encircling mass of thick-walled, non-lacunose tissue, developed out of the palisade cells and spongy parenchyma of the leaf. No algal threads were found in this tissue. The berry not being able to

defend itself in this way suffers most, becoming gradually brown and finally black and wrinkling and drying prematurely, so that the seed does not ripen. All parts of the alga are subject to the attacks of a fungus, which also appears to be capable of growing in the berries apart from the threads of the alga, but the relation of which to the latter and to the causation of the disease is left by the author in a rather unsatisfactory state. The paper is accompanied by a lithographic plate showing details of the alga and sections of the normal and hypertrophied tissue. ERWIN F. SMITH.

ZOOLOGY.

On Bodo urinarius.-Although the discovery of certain peculiar infusoria in human urine dates so far back as 1859, but little is known of these animalculæ. M. Barrois has been investigating the subject

and has recently published his conclusions. According to his account Hassall was the first to detect this microscopic creature in its chosen habitat. He described it under the name of Bodo urinarius, as an animalcula 1800 inch long and 30 inch wide, of rapid motion, generally round or oval, presenting a granular appearance, sometimes they are broader at one end. The long lashes, by means of which they move, are variable in number and proceed when there are two or three to each animalcule from opposite extremities; reproduction by longitudinal fission. In 1885 Kunstler found "small monads. . . . flagellate, transparent and very active. . . . probably Bodo urinarius."

In reviewing the subject, M. Barrois gives detailed accounts of these discoveries, and of the condition of the urine in which they appear. He then describes his own methods of investigation, and compares the drawings of specimens, after Hasslar and Kuntsler, with the infusoria he himself had found existing under similar conditions as those described by the authors mentioned. M. Barrois lays particular stress upon the fact that the infusoria found by him, only appeared in urine plainly alkaline, which contained animal matter (broken down epithelial cells, pus, albumen), and which had been exposed sometime to the air. In no case did he find them in fresh urine. Hassall's notes show a similar set of conditions in his case. Kunstler, however, claims to have found the infusoria in fresh urine in company with several species of bacteria. M. Barrois is of the opinion that Kunstler was deceived as to the age of the urine given him for examination, since in all other respects the conditions (as to animal matter, etc.) agree with those of Hassler and the author. In view of these conditions M. Barrois does not agree with the statement made that Bodo urinarius is a parasite. He is rather of the opinion that it exists in the air in a spore-like form ready to develop whenever it is brought in contact with a suitable nidus. This it finds in urine conditioned as above described.

In the course of his discussion, M. Barrois refers to Trichomonas vaginalis Douné, found by Salisbury in the urine and vaginal mucous of a young girl aged sixteen, supposed to be parasitic, and to certain Trichomonads found by Marchand and also by Miura; in all probability T. vaginalis. In the two latter cases, the infusoria was found living in freshly voided urine, so it would appear to be a true parasite. In both cases the urine was loaded with decomposing matter.

By an ingenious experiment, Miura demonstrated that the Trichomonads lived in the urethra only, and was not found in the bladder.

As to the classification of the Monads, M. Barrois considers it extremely unsatisfactory, since it is based on the number and disposition of

the flagella. In fact, Bodo urinarius, by reason of its polymorphism, can have no place in such a scheme of classification.

In conclusion, the author compares Bodo urinarius with Oekomonas mutabilis Saville-Kent, which propagates both from spores and by fission in infusions of vegetable matter, and also with O. rostratum Sav.-Kent, found in both fresh and salt water containing vegetable debris. He finds the three species so similar in appearance, that one might infer that their only difference is in their habitat.

M. Barrois repeats, as a final statement, that Bodo urinarius Kunstler (Cystomonas urinaria R. Bl. Plagiomonas urinaria M. Braun) can hardly be given a place among the parasites of man. (Revue Biol., Feb., 1895.)

Influence of the Winter 1894-1895 upon the Marine Fauna of the Coast of France.-M. Pierre Fauvel calls attention to the considerable influence which the exceptional lowering of temperature, and long duration of cold, during the last winter, exercised upon the marine fauna of the coasts of France.

Sharp frosts, at the time of high tide, would destroy innumerable quantities of animals that the ebb tide would leave exposed. Annelids, Actinans and Fish were found dead or unconscious, paralyzed by the cold. This mortality, strange to say, extended to depths which the change of temperature could not have affected directly.

Another effect of the cold has been to bring in shore animals ordinarily seen in deeper water, and also certain species very rare or entirely unknown in our fauna. The Spring was marked by an extraordinary abundance of Balanus porcatus, which covered with a continuous bed the surface of the boulders and rocks, and by the return of the Mussels which had nearly disappeared. During some weeks Mytilus edulis took possession of all the rocks exposed to the southwest wind and formed veritable "moulières" at Dent, Pointe de Réville and at Draguet. Parallel changes are noticed in the annelid fauna. Thus certain species which were common last year have either become rare, or totally extinct, while new species are continually taking their places. (Revue Scientif., 1895, p. 374.)

Preliminary Outline of a New Classification of the Family Muricidæ. By F. C. Baker (Bull. Chicago Acad. Sciences, 1895). On reading this paper we regret to find that Mr. Baker has been putting his new wine into old bottles. In other words, he has borrowed largely from the phraseology of a conchological paper published in 1892, as the following parallel passages show: