In the introduction of; we see the first step, taken in the Sung dynasty, of the sibilating process in this word. The next step was the change of dj to sh.

Dj thus produced long kept its position at the beginning of several words, as is shown by the Mongol transcriptions in the Yuen dynasty, when Baschpa's alphabet was used to write Chinese sounds. Here dj frequently occurs.

The character for Si c'hwen shu, is given as dok in Kp A.D. 350. In Ty, Tsy, it is zhok and in Mandarin shu. It is a worm that preys on the sunflower, and resembles a silkworm in form, but likes different leaves.

The change of d to l has taken place extensively, but not in recent times. At Shanghai chi li "closely attached," is called dze di. This is an unquestionable instance of the change from d to l.

meeting

shu, shok,

These are

Examples are not only rare in dialects, but in phonetics. Yet among the phonetics there are some instances of sh and as branches of one family or phonetic tree. Thus "number," has a phonetic which also occurs as leu 789. to be explained as follows: d became both sh and I. In this instance the double change took place subsequently to the invention of the character. Duk was the sound when the character was invented. The character was applied to the senses "tower," "several times," "silk thread," "to engrave," etc., which all became leu or lu. Afterwards shok "number," needing a character, this one was with p'u, one of the hand radicals, employed for the purpose, either as a suitable ideograph having the sense "several times," or phonetically by change of d to sh.

In most cases there is no likelihood that d changed to and sh after the invention of the characters. Numerous words occur in pairs having the same sense and differing in their initials only. Such are

shwang "two," liang "two." The inventors of writing chose different characters to write these words because they were already separated.

The following examples will help to show that words whose initials are 8, sh, ts, or ch, very often agree in meaning with words whose initial is l.

Shwang "clear," "fresh," t'sing "clear," liang "bright," liang "clear," lang "clear."

Shwang "cool," shwang "frost," sang "clear," liang "cool," leng "cold," ling "ice."

Siang "think," liang "calculate," "measure," "conjecture."
Siang "chest," "basket," lung "cage," ling "prison."
Sung "high," lung "high," tsung "high."

Sheng "sound," t'ing "hear," ling "hear," ling "command."
Si, sik, "addition," "gain," li, lik, "interest of money.'
Tsung "all together," chung "all," lung "bring together,'
whole," tung "the whole.”

""the

See Appendix B for the Chinese characters and more examples. L, 8, sh, having become parted from the original d and t, are usually found in separate phonetics. That it should not be so always is evidence that the change of d or t into those letters, continued to a small extent beyond the time of the invention of writing. Thus 生 sheng "to produce," "raw," "living," is found as a phonetic element in 835 lung "flourishing." It is possible, however, that 164 is here ideographic, as leu 789 may be in shu "number."

The letter y as an initial often occurs for t or d. The loss of an initial t, d or s from many words now beginning with y may be concluded from the sound given in old dictionaries. In the Fang yen the author says, speaking off yung, that it is also called sung by change in pronunciation. The dialects at that time contained peculiarities which guided lexicographers to such opinions as this.

It may also be shown by Kw forms of characters. Thus T'ang, the name of the dynasty of Yau, was written in Kw with as phonetic. This character is now yang, but it was anciently dong. See under 592 and 767, where the character is phonetic to shang, which always has sh, t, or ts as its initial. With R. water the same phonetic always has initial t, as in tang "hot water.'

yang "sheep" has dz as its initial in several words where it is used as a phonetic. This fact points to a primeval initial d.

The latent connexion of many words is brought into clear view by recognizing this law of change. Thus yo, yak, "to bind," is shu, shok, "to bind," both coming from dak. Yo, yak, "to jump," is t'iau, t'ak, having the same meaning. Yin, yim, "fornication," is c'hen, dim, "to sink," "be immersed."yin, yim, "sound," is the same asting "hear," and sheng "sound," because ng comes from m and t, sh, and y all come from the same original t.

yeu, duk, "from," is the same word as

tsi, dik, "from,"

because y and dz both proceed from d, and final k has been lost from

each of them.

The dropping of final t is parallel to that of the finals k and p.

Many words have two sounds in the dictionaries, one with the final letter which it originally possessed, and one without it. Thus shu, “to relate," "record," "tell," is read by the dictionary compilers zhut in Kwy, Tsy, Yh, and zhui is required by the rhyme in a poem called in Kh, Tsau chi tsieu fu.

So shu "a plan" is in Ty, Tsy, Yh, zhut, but it is also (in Tsy) zui. The rule is that words may drop finals or change them for others, but they do not take new finals where there were none before.

Final t changed to l, r in north China before it was dropped. In Mongol the Chinese final t becomes, as in bal "honey," Ch. mit; tololaga "lacquer," "varnish," Ch. t'sit; t'ologai "head,” Ch. t'eu, t'ut; t'ailaho "explain," "open," Ch. tot "unloose," "explain;" t'olai "hare," Ch. t'u, tot; tariho "to sow," Ch. sat 'sprinkle;" haireho "return," Jap. kayeri, kayeshi, Ch. hwei, 5, gut. In Corean vocabularies of Chinese words, final t is regularly represented by r. This seems to indicate that in north China at the time when the Corean transcription was made, r was common as a substitute for the old final t.

The Indian name for Frank is Feringa. The Chinese name of the Roman Empire became in the T'ang dynasty Put lim. But these characters were at that time in western China probably heard as For-ling. This would account for their being selected in preference to others.

The interchange of n and t may be illustrated from the sounds assigned to some phonetics, e.g. tan, dat, tat, san, sat, "scatter." That the direction of change was from t to n appears from cognate languages. Thus in Mongol t'ariho "to sow," agrees with the Chinese sat. But in Chinese we find both sat and san "to scatter." The form in t then is the older. This change was very ancient, and nothing remains of it in the modern language except in the phonetics. It was taking place therefore about the time of the invention of the characters. Of this we have the traces. But as its area is limited to a few phonetics, the wider field of change must have been before the time of this invention. Thus fen "divide," and

pie, bit, "divide," are not connected in written symbols, but are certainly connected in their roots. The change then by which the root bit or bat became bin, pien, fen, was anterior to the period of T'sang kie. Final n changes to ng occasionally. This change occurs extensively in Nanking, Su cheu, Hang cheu and Fu cheu. Here it is a dialectic peculiarity attached to words which are classed together in large groups. In Peking and Tien tsin the sound tsin is heard ching. The examples of this change, however, are few.

In the dictionary Kwang yün many words now chiefly read with final ng have also final n. Thus P. 182 ling "command," is there sometimes lien. In the classical poetry this phonetic has only final n. See examples in Tyt. In the same ancient poems ming "command," which is probably the same word, occurs six times with final n. See Tyt.

The word jen "to know," is pronounced both nin and ning in the dictionary Kwang yün.

6. LABIAL LETTERS.

The labial letters should come first, because they are learned the earliest by children. But the usage of Sanscrit grammar has led to the placing of k in the post of honour.

The Chinese f is derived from p and b. Of this there are many proofs. I select a few. The word for Buddha

is now called Fo.

The Japanese, him Budzu or

In the south Fukien dialect Buddha is called Put. who derived the religion of Buddha from China, call Fo to ge. But dzu represents the old syllable du. Supposing that the ancient Chinese called this personage Bud, the Fukien people would naturally change b to p and d to t, for this is in accordance with the genius of their dialect. The history of this word enables us to determine that the change from b to f took place about a thousand years ago, or five hundred years later than the introduction of Buddhism into China.

The reason why Buddhism is known in China as the religion of Fo, is that the sound of the character used to represent Buddha has changed from but to fo.

The change from initial p to initial m is found in some phonetics. Among words written with p'ai, 269, we find, with R. flesh, mak " vein."

The change from initial m to w is common, and may be well observed in the phonetic wen "literature;" also meaning lines in palmistry, rings in trees, veins in marble. In the sense to endeavour, put forth effort, encourage one's self or others, also to pity, min is the sound. The lexicon Ty in spelling min, uses wu "military," proving that when that dictionary was made the ordinary sound of wu "military" was mu.

Initial m is apt to become b in some dialects, as in that of south Fukien. This is also observable in Chinese roots which have strayed into the Mongol vocabulary. Thus bal "honey" is the Chinese mit, behe "ink" is the Chinese mek.

I now proceed to speak of the change from final p to k.

Did this change occur anciently in Chinese? We find traces among the finals. We find dak "to give" in lai, 7, dak, but dap occurs in shi, 1, tap, "to give." We may suspect that the first of these came from the second. If this be correct, may we not surmise that kik "hasty" is derived from kip, having the same sense? To hold in the hand is both tip (now chi) and tik or dik (now chi 4 and chi 5). So with tik and tip "to shine." To shine is found both under P. 762 ip from an older dip, under P. 128 lip "to stand," where it has in Tsy the sounds yik and yip (see Phon. 762, 590), and under P. 799 having a distinct k final.

As a final letter t for p occurs in several phonetics, as nei, nap, nat, shi, siep, siet, chi, tep, tiet.

That final t came in the place of p may be seen in certain words beginning with s. As in 542 ye "leaf," we find under R. water sie "to scatter," "disperse," "remove," "leak." This is given in Ty, Tsy, siet. But the phonetic has properly final p in tie "platter," ye "leaf," tie "butterfly." The initial became in some words s from an older t. The consequence was that p changed to t through some curious effect of the sibilant initial.

nap P. 121 changes to nat with R. woman, mouth, grass, insect, etc., Kwy.

In Kwy the phonetics 152,742, 542, all unquestionably belonging to the p final class, have sit with RR. water, sun, woman respectively. In the Tie chiu vocabulary siet "to bind" is written with R. silk, and P. shi, ship, "generation," and with P. ye, yep, "to drag." The same character is sit in Kwy, Tsy, Yh.