A

TIMBER LINES

N interesting paper on "Timber Lines" was presented by Prof. Israel C. Russell to the recent meeting in Washington, D. C., of the Gelogical Society of America. The following is an abstract of the address :

"Timber line,' as commonly defined, is the upper limit of arboreal vegetation on mountains. Its position is determined mainly by the occurrence of a mean annual temperature of about 32 degrees Fahrenheit, but locally its elevation is regulated by soil conditions and by differences between various localities in snow-fall, severity of winter storms, exposure to the sun, etc. It may with propriety be termed the 'cold timber-line.' Above it on high mountains there is commonly a region occupied by alpine flowers, and still higher a region of perpetual snow. When

traced from warm to colder regions or, in general, from the equator toward either pole, it becomes lower and lower. In North America it descends nearly to sea-level in Alaska and northern Canada, where it defines the northern limit of the subarctic forest and becomes the 'continental timber-line,' to the north of which lie the barren grounds and tundras, which correspond to the zone of alpine flowers on lofty mountains in temperate latitudes.

This

On some of the mountain ranges of the arid portion of the United States there is a lower limit of tree growth, the position of which is determined in the main by insufficient moisture, and locally by soil conditions, including the presence of alkali, hot winds, forest fires, exposure to the sun, etc. may be termed the 'dry timber-line'. Below it are treeless, grass-covered plains and valleys. On the mountains. of central Idaho, the cold timber-line is sharply drawn at an elevation of about 10,000 feet, while the dry timber-line, equally well defined, has an elevation of about 7,000 feet; between the two there is a belt of forest trees which encircles the mountains. In southeastern Oregon, Nevada, southern California, etc., where the climate is excessively arid, the dry timber-line is higher than in Idaho, and in certain localities meets the cold timber-line, and the mountains are bare of trees from base to summit. The dry timber-line decreases in elevation when traced from arid to humid regions. In the central part of the continental basin of North America, it defines the border of the treeless portion of the Great Plateaus and the prairie plains, and at the north coincides with the southern limit of the subarctic forest. On the borders of the treeless plateaus and the prairie plains the position of the margin of the encircling forest is determined mainly by lack of moisture, but is varied locally by soil conditions, hot winds, forest fires, etc.,

in the same manner that the lower limit of tree growth on the mountains of arid region is regulated.

"When the humidity is sufficient for the growth of trees, as for example on the mountains of New England, the dry timber-line disappears. An arid region may be bordered at a lower elevation by a region with sufficient humidity to permit trees to grow, and may then be bordered both above and below by the dry timber-line, as is the case in southern Idaho. Where an arid region reaches sea-level, as in Arizona, southern California, and the west coast of Mexico, etc, there is no forest below the arid belt, and in certain localities the dry timber-line meets the cold timber-line, and the mountains are bare of trees from sea-level to their summits.

"There is also a third general cause which draws a limit to timber growth, namely, excessive humidity, as for example on the borders of swamps, the margins of lakes, etc., which may perhaps be termed the 'wet timber line."

RECLAMATION OF THE HIGH PLAINS

THE

HE efforts of the hydrographic branch of the United States Geological Survey are being directed to the discovery of sufficient water to lead to the reclamation and habitation of that area of the Great Plains lying west of the prairies and east of the Rocky Mountains, commonly known as the High Plains. The section is admirably suited to agriculture and grazing except for its inadequate water supply, which is so uncertain that great areas of fertile land lie quite uninhabited.

This is especially true of the regions lying between the river valleys which cross it at wide intervals. These broad intervalley plateaus are practically waterless, but it has been discovered that water may be had from underground sources by wells and windmills, and it

has been demonstrated that, while the region may not be largely reclaimable by irrigation, it may be successfully used for grazing by creating stockwatering points at comparatively close intervals. intervals. It will, however, be difficult, if not impossible, for the grazers to raise anything besides fodder cane of the drought-resisting varieties, such as Kaffir corn. Vegetables and other products will, for the most part, probably have to be grown elsewhere.

The river valleys, on the other hand, seem destined to be extensively cultivated by irrigation, the water for which will be pumped from the gravels of the river beds, where an underflow has been known to continue in the summer season after the rivers themselves have ceased to run. These areas will furnish garden produce for the ranches on the plateau, and in this manner make the region as a whole habitable. The details of this investigation, with exhaustive studies of the nature of the underground waters of the High Plains, appear in the Twentyfirst and Twenty-second Annual Reports of the United States Geological Survey, the latter of which is now in press and will soon be issued.

Commander Robert E. Peary, at a recent meeting of the Geographical Society of Philadelphia, declared that he was willing to lead another expedition in search of the North Pole if some wealthy Arctic enthusiast was ready to put up $150,000 to finance the expedition. Mr Peary believes that by making Cape Hekla the base, as outlined in the last number of this Magazine, the Pole could be reached, but it would take two years to do it.

The U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey Steamer Blake, commanded by Capt. R. L. Faris, arrived at San Juan, Porto Rico, January 27, and reports a successful series of daily magnetic observations aboard ship on the passage between the

Capes of the Chesapeake and San Juan, Porto Rico. These observations were made under the direction of Prof. L. A. Bauer, Chief of the Magnetic Division of the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey.

Mr William Ziegler authorizes this Magazine to announce that he intends to send forth another north polar expedition this summer. The party will go north on the America. The personnel of the expedition is not yet complete so that a list of the members cannot now be given.

Two maps of Guatemala, each on the scale of 12.5 miles to one inch, have recently been published by the Bureau of American Republics. In addition to names of towns, volcanoes, railways, telegraph stations, etc., one map shows the approximate location of minerals in Guatemala, and the other the general elevation and the agricultural features of the country.

DECISIONS OF THE U. S. BOARD ON GEOGRAPHIC NAMES

December 3, 1902

Arabella; island (Canadian) in the St Lawrence River, near Clayton, Jefferson County, New York (not Ambella nor Amelia). Behestian; township, Ouachita County, Arkansas (not Behrstian).

Brakel; creek, Chenango and Cortland Counties, New York (not Brackel nor Braket). Canadarago; lake, Otsego County, New York (not Schuyler).

Cape Rosier; post-office, Hancock County, Maine (not Cape Rozier).

Catatonk; creek, post-office, and railroad station, Tioga County, New York (not Catatunk).

Channahatchee; creek, Elmore County, Alabama (not Cedar).

Diddell; post-office and railroad station, Dutchess County, New York (not Didell). Freeo; bayou, Douglas and Ouachita Counties, and township, Ouachita County, Arkansas (not Frio).

Grenell; island in St Lawrence River, and

post-office, Jefferson County, New York (not Grennell, Grinnell, nor Stuart). Heart; island in St Lawrence River, Jefferson County, New York (not Hart nor Hemlock).

Ionia; post-office, railroad station, and village, Ontario County, New York (not Millers. Corners).

Lake of the Isles; lake on Wellesley Island,
St Lawrence River, Jefferson County,
New York (not Waterloo).

Leek; island (Canadian), St Lawrence River,
near Grindstone Island, Jefferson County,
New York (not Leak nor Leaks).
Little Tobehanna; creek, Schuyler County,
New York (not Little Tobyhanna).
Lounsberry; locality, post-office, and railroad
station, Tioga County, New York (not
Canfields Corners).

McGraw; post-office, railroad station, and village, Cortland County, New York (not McGrawville).

Millen; bay, St Lawrence River, Jefferson County, New York (not Mellen nor Millens).

Mud; lake, Jefferson County, New York (not
Edmund nor Edmonds).
Nowadaga; creek, Herkimer County, New
York (not Indian Castle nor Nouadaga).
Ocquionis; creek, Otsego and Herkimer Coun-
ties, New York (not Fish).

Osburn; post-office and railroad station, Shoshone County, Idaho (not Osborne).

Petri; post-office and railroad station, Hancook County, Kentucky (not Petrie nor Petri Station).

Philomel; creek, Jefferson County, New York
(not Phileman nor Philemon).
Salubrious; point, Lake Ontario, Jefferson
County, New York (not Vesuvius).
Savilton; locality and post-office, Orange
County, New York (not Savil, Savill, nor
Saville).

Shadow; brook, Otsego County, New York (not East Springfield).

Stanbro; village, Chenango County, New York (not Stambro).

Sterling; township, Vernon County, Wisconsin (not Stirling).

Socapatoy; creek, precinct, and village, Coosa
County, Alabama (not Socapartoy, Socco-
potoy, nor Sucapatova).
Terlingua; creek, post-office, and village,

Brewster County, Texas (not Latis Langua, Tarlinga, Tasa Lingo, Terlinga, nor Ter lingo). Tobehanna; creek, Schuyler County, New York (not Tobyhanna nor Big Tobyhanna). Travelers Rest; post-office and precinct, Coosa County, Alabama (not Travellers Rest). Tygart; river, West Virginia (not Tygarts Valley nor Valley).

Vanduzer; post-office and railroad station, Ouachita County, Arkansas (not Vanduser nor Van Duzer).

Volcan; mountains, San Diego County, California (not Balcan nor Bolcan).

Wolfe; island (Canadian), St Lawrence River, near Clayton, Jefferson County, New York (not Grand nor Long).

J. S. Diller is the author of two reports recently published by the U. S. Geological Survey-"The Geology of Crater Lake National Park" and "Topographic Development of the Klamath Mountains." The former tells the geological history of the only crater lake in the United States. The lake and surrounding country in May, 1902, was dedicated by Congress as a national park. The latter describes the development of the Klamath Mountains of California, a range which includes a number of peaks varying from 7,000 to over 9,000 feet. The reports contain some remarkably fine illustrations.

"Commercial India in 1902" is the title of a recent monograph prepared by the Treasury Bureau of Statistics. This report shows that the commerce of India in 1902 was larger than that of any preceding year in its history. India ranks. sixth in the list of world's exporting nations. Its exports reached $382,000, ooo in the fiscal year ending March 31, 1902.

India is one of the comparatively few countries of the world whose exports exceed imports, the exports of India in 1902 exceeding the value of its imports by $127,000,000, which is a larger excess of exports than that of any other country except the United States. The

value of the imports in the fiscal year 1902 was $264,000,000, of which practically two-thirds were drawn from the United Kingdom and only 2 per cent from the United States. Of the exports, 25 per cent went to the United Kingdom and 12 per cent were sent to the United States. Of the exports, rice, hides and skins, jute, cotton, tea, opium, and oil seeds are the principal items in the order named. The principal imports are cotton manufactures, which form more than one-third of the total; metals, hardware and cutlery, sugar, oils, silk, raw and manufactured; woolen goods, and machinery of various kinds.

The U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey has just published a List and Catalogue of all the publications of the Survey. It makes a quarto volume of 237 pages. The List is arranged chronologically and the Catalogue alphabetically, by authors, subjects, places, etc., with many cross-references.

The proceedings of the Society during December, 1902, and January, 1903, will be published in the March number.

REGULAR MEETINGS.

February 13.-"The Work of the Census Office." Hon. William R. Merriam.

February 27.-"The Work of the Naval Observatory. Capt. Charles H. Davis.

March 13.-"The Work of the Geological Survey. Hon. Charles D. Walcott. March 27. "The Work of the Library of Congress." Hon. Herbert Putnam.

This is the last meeting of the season. POPULAR LECTURES.

February 6.-"From Paris to New York Overland." Mr Harry de Windt. (Illustrated) This is the account of a remarkable journey of 18,000 miles by land from Paris to New York via Bering Strait.

February 21.*" Tropical Development, a Temperate Zone Problem." Hon. O. P. Austin. ( (Illustrated.)

March 6.-"The Geographic Distribution of Insanity in the United States." Dr W. A. White, Director of the Binghamton State Hospital, New York.

THE AFTERNOON COURSE OF LECTURES. IN COLUMBIA THEATRE AT 4.20 P. M.

The general subject of the course is "The United States." During recent years our country has been advancing by leaps and bounds, until today it is the most wealthy of nations. New York is now practically the financial center of the world. American capitalists have within the last four years floated loans for Mexico, Germany, England, and Russia, and have placed hundreds of millions of dollars in investments abroad. The question now in every mind is, What elements in the United States have helped us to earn this tremendous national wealth and power and have won for us commercial supremacy in the markets of the world? To partially answer this question is the aim of the present series of five lectures. In other words, the subject of the course is "The Basis of the Wealth and Power of the United States.'

Diagrams and illustrations will be used very freely, but statistics and tables will be avoided as far as possible. The lecture committee desire to have the subject treated in a popular way rather than from a statistical or technical point of view.

* Please note that this is Saturday.

I. "Lands and Waters." The first lecture in the series will treat of the unexcelled natural features of the United States-our deep, secure harbors on the Atlantic, Gulf, and Pacific seaboards, our great rivers which penetrate into the heart of the country, our vast fertile plains and lofty mountains, in which are buried untold mineral wealth, and our inland lakes, all seemingly ranged in most fortunate conjunction to mutually help each other, and the elements and routes of commerce. Lecturer, Mr Cyrus C. Adams, the noted writer and lecturer on geographical themes. February 10, 1903.

The sec

2. "The Soil and its Products." ond lecture will deal more particularly with the land and the products of the land-agriculture. Twenty billions of dollars are invested in the agricultural interests of the United States. We raise annually two billion bushels of corn and reap every year a larger crop of wheat than the combined wheat crops of Argentina and Russia.

In 1901 the United States sent nearly one billion dollars' worth of food-wheat, pork, beef, etc.-to the people of Europe. We are literally the storehouse of Europe. Lecturer, Secretary of Agriculture, Hon. James Wilson. February 18, 1903.

3. The Industries." The third lecture will treat of the industrial wealth of the United States. The value of our manufactures exceed that of any other nation. In the manufacture of steel we lead the world, and in cotton and woolen fabrics we are eclipsed by no one. Our railways-two hundred thousand miles of them-penetrate to every corner of the country, binding the whole nation into one compact unit. Our telegraph and telephone systems enable men to communicate instantaneously though thousands of miles apart. Lecturer, Hon. O. P. Austin, Chief of Bureau of Statistics, Treasury Department. February 25, 1903.

4. "Mines and Mining." The fourth lecture will treat of the mineral wealth of the United States. During each of the last three years we have produced more coal than England; in 1902 we produced more than one-half of the refined petroleum; more than one-third of the world's production of iron ore in 1902 was obtained from the United States mines; threefifths of the copper output for the same year came from the United States. Lecturer, Mr. Charles Kirchoff, editor of The Iron Age. March 4, 1903.

5.

The Men Who Make the Nation." The fifth and last lecture will treat of the people of the United States. The mingling of races and peculiar conditions have bred a distinct and original people, who mould the gifts of nature to their will. The inventive genius of the American has enabled him to increase many times the resources nature has given him. The typical American has not yet been bred, but we may prophesy what he will be and what place he will hold in the world. Lecturer, W J McGee, LL. D., Vice-President National Geographic Society. March 11, 1903.