the three branches of insurance into one organization, but to keep the risks within their own sphere of action.-International Institute of Agriculture, Bulletin of The Bureau of Economic and Social Intelligence, July 31, 1911. S. A. Q.

Immigration and Crises.-Immigration today is essentially an economic problem. The rates of immigration and emigration are correlated with the economic conditions, but the emigration during a crisis period is too slight to exert a palliative effect. The important relation between immigration and crises rests upon the nature and underlying causes of crises in this country. Crises are caused by speculative overproduction. A rise of interest rate and real wages proportionate to price increase should check these tendencies. Free immigration prevents this rise of real wages and hence crises are not held off. Demand for labor should be expressed in a high wage scale and met by native offspring. A large amount of savings in the hands of the poorer classes would have a steadying effect in time of crisis but immigration prevents this.-Henry Pratt Fairchild, American Economic Review, December, 1911.

A. H. W.

The Economic Aspects of Immigration.-Statistics show that the demand for labor within the last twenty years has outrun the growth of population both through natural increase and immigration. During the past sixty years the ratio of immigration to population has, in the long run, been well-nigh constant, with a slightly declining tendency as population has grown. There has been no displacement of native by foreign labor. But there has been an advancement in the scale of occupation generally. There are no facts to show that immigration has debased wages; but the facts indicate that the supply of immigrant labor has prevented reduction of wages of the older employees. No group of laborers, irrespective of immigration, has been able to maintain its real wages. Restriction of immigration would not give protection against unemployment.—Isaac A. Hourwich, Political Science Quarterly, December, A. H. W.

1911.

Les lois sur l'industrie en Autriche et en Allemagne.-The German and Austrian labor laws show a tendency to approach a rather strict control of the individual; these laws classify occupations quite closely and confine the individual to a single occupation or a group of related occupations. The laborers are in many cases given monopoly by laws which prevent wholesalers from manufacturing or even performing any work which is ordinarily done by artisans. The right of the employee to contract with the employer is only slightly limited; both strikes and lockouts are allowed. Apprenticeship is closely restricted. Labor tribunals are established, with jurisdiction within prescribed limits. On the whole, the German laws do not approach so closely to an ideal reform of industry as do those of Austria. Both recognize the laborer as more than an economic factor in industry; he is a social factor. The middle class has not been so greatly helped by these provisions as was hoped. The general tendency of the laws is to favor big industries; but corporations are controlled in an efficient manner.-Combes de Lestrades, Le Musée social, Supplément, November, 1911. W. S. T.

La législation de l'émigration en Italie.-The importance of the emigration from Italy has led to the enactment of emigration laws since 1901. A commission on emigration was created with the function of caring for the interests of the emigrants until they reached their destinations. This commission established two stations for the departure of emigrants-one at Naples for those going to North America, the other at Genoa for those going to South America. Steps are also being taken to protect the emigrants after they have settled in foreign countries. It is hoped that a study of internal conditions and the passage of new emigration laws may check the unusual exodus of Italians.-Henri Lorin, Le Musée social, September, 1911.

W. S. T.

Anthropométrie et aptitudes.-Anthropometry is not of such a nature as to be able to predict by means of a great many exact measurements the aptitudes of

children. It is only in a general and rather inexact manner that it is now or will be of any practical value.-L. Manouvrier, Revue anthropologique, November, 1911. W. S. T.

Influence of Capitalism on Agriculture. The great change in the land laws in the first half of the nineteenth century in Prussian Saxony gave an opportunity for the introduction of capital into agriculture; this was favored by the industrial disturbances in the cities. Agriculture was at first improved by the introduction of capitalism; but with the raising of products for profit, there went also a rapid exchange of lands, speculation, etc. The formation of Raiffeisen banks and other co-operative organizations later in the century tended to free agriculture from capitalistic domination. International Institute of Agriculture, Bulletin of the Bureau of Economic and Social Intelligence, July, 1911.

L. E.

Hereditary Factors in Epileptics.-Medicine has made gigantic strides during the last thirty years, yet idiopathic epilepsy remains incurable. (1) Even total cessation of fits for a period of five years does not imply that the patient is cured. Dr. Aldren Turner tells us that he dares speak of the disease being arrested, if there has been no fit for nine years. (2) Epileptics, although the fits may have been arrested, should never be allowed to marry, as they are usually prolific, and their offspring apt to be either mentally deficient, epileptic, or both.-A. Hume Griffith, M.D., Review of Neurology and Psychiatry, October, 1911.

J. E. E.

Heredity and the Jew.-The Jewish facial type, whether it be considered to rest on a gross anatomical basis, or whether it be regarded as the reflection in the facial musculature of a peculiar psychical state, is a character which is subject to the Mendelian law of heredity.-Redcliffe N. Salaman, Journal of Genetics, August, 1911. J. E. É.

Nymalthusianismen från rasbiologisk och rashygienisk synpunkt.—That superior talents are not coincident with culture is evident from the frequent passage of individuals from one class to another. The caliber of a people is determined, not so much by biological, as by social conditions. Though race hygiene is very valuable, nothing can take the place of the morals and customs. That which should be set at a premium is the superior environment for character building which is found inthe stress and tension of large family groups. Pontus Fahlbeck, Statsvetenskaplig Tidsskrift, November, 1911. J. E. É.

Om Arbejdslöshed.-Present industrial conditions demand a centralization of employment agencies, and their management by the government. There should be co-operation between trades unions, employers, and employment agencies. There are no adequate statistics, and it is almost impossible to secure them, because of (1) the men who do not want to work, (2) the inclusion of invalids and other unfortunates in the number of those unemployed, (3) the fact that the present methods of the census tell the tale of but one moment in our social process.-Harald Westergaard, Nationalokonomisk Tidsskrift, March-April, 1911. J. E. E.

Socialforsikringens Udviklingstendenser.-The intimate relation between the different forms of social insurance is based on the necessity of the power to work. The purpose of social insurance is not merely insurance, but general social welfare. In spite of the failure of voluntary insurance in some places, its usefulness does not seem to be outlived. Compulsory insurance in reality makes a breach in the principle of "help for self-help"; it has been said by German authorities that such insurance may weaken the feeling of responsibility, uprightness, and thrift by virtue of the complacence fostered by it.-Aage Sorensen, Nationalokonomisk Tidsskrift, JulyAugust, 1911. J. E. E.

A First Study of Inheritance of Epilepsy.—The study of a number of pedigrees of inmates of the New Jersey State Village for Epileptics, at Skillman, N.J., shows a great similarity of behavior in heredity, supporting the hypothesis that such is due so the absence of a protoplasmic factor that determines complete nervous develop

ment, in the epileptic and feeble-minded. The most effective mode of preventing the increase of epileptics that society would probably countenance is the segregation during the reproductive period of all epiletics.-Charles B. Davenport and David F. Weeks, M.D., The Journal of Nervous and Mental Diseases, November, 1911.

J. E. E.

Scientific Accident Prevention.-Scientific accident prevention demands the following: (1) that the initial obligation to safeguard be placed on the employer and the maker of dangerous machinery; (2) that there be a comprehensive specification of risks and for this purpose an analysis of the dangerous elements of machinery; (3) additional powers for state factory departments to frame special rules; (4) more adequate factory inspection, including the employment of several mechanical experts; (5) establishment of a state safety museum; (6) collection, analysis, and criticism of accident reports; (7) education of the employers and employees in regard to the risks. John Calder, American Labor Legislation Review, December, 1911. E. H. S.

Anti-toxin for Municipal Waste and Corruption-We need an anti-toxin for certain internal diseases connected with our municipal government. In general this remedy is to put the municipal riches in the hands of experts, and to give these experts sufficient power, independence, and length of tenure to keep them free from the exigencies of passing politics. There should be both a political and an expert head, each a different person and each with clearly defined powers. This plan of securing for the permanent heads of departments men of high character and training and tenure based on merit and fitness is proving a great success in England, Germany, and France.—Richard Henry Dana, National Municipal Review, January, 1912.

L. E.

Die sozialhygienische Bedeutung der Reichsversicherungsordung.-The reform measures passed by the German Reichstag on May 30, 1911, with reference to imperial insurance for laborers, may be regarded as full of significance for social hygiene in that country. The circle of the insured is now widened to include agricultural laborers, domestic servants, the irregularly employed, the journeymen trades, and those working at home. In this way seven million more people are benefited than formerly. The chief purpose of the insurance is not only to help those who are sick and injured, to provide against accidents and invalidism, but also to prevent the spread of diseases. Dr. Alfons Fischer, Zeitschrift für Volkswirtschaft, No. 5, 1911. L.

La théorie de la lutte des classes à la veille de la Revolution française.Besides the nobles, clergy, and third estate, economic classes were recognized by the writers of that time. They opposed a leisure class to an industrial class, a landed class to a salaried class, and a rich class to a poor class. The rôle which a man played in production, the place he attained in the scheme of distribution, and the habits displayed in consumption determined his place in the social classes. Karl Marx's theory of the conflict of classes had already been formulated by the writers of the Revolution. Numerous examples from the philosophers and the encyclopaedists of the eighteenth century show clearly the growth of class consciousness. Economic evolution and unfair industrial legislation were the factors in bringing about this strong class consciousness.-Roger Picard, Revue d'économie politique, September-October, 1911. W. S. T.

De la crémation.-The beliefs of many of the ancient peoples regarding the soul led them to incinerate the bodies of the dead and to carry the ashes of their ancestors with them in urns. This was a very common practice among the ancient Aryans. Sometimes it was semicremation, i.e., the flesh was devoured by animals or birds and then the bones were burned. Cremation was little practiced during the Middle Ages, but is slowly coming into use again. As a universal practice it would be much more sanitary than burial, and the ceremonies, somewhat altered, could be made fully as impressive.-Eugène Fournier, Revue internationale de sociologie, November, 1911. W. S. T.

The Origin and Control of Mental Defectiveness.-The defects of feeblemindedness are hereditary, having come in uninterrupted succession from our animal ancestry, and being transmitted in the germ plasm of the parents. The multi-defectives among the feeble-minded constitute the main social problem. When both parents are multi-defective the child is almost certain to be feeble-minded. Something should be done by sterilizaton or segregation or in some other way to prevent this class from reproducing their kind.-Dr. Chas. B. Davenport, Popular Science Monthly, January, R. W. F.

1912.

Consumers' Strikes in France.-The recent strikes among the consumers in northern France, and the formation in Paris of "The National League of Consumers of France" indicate that an organized attempt is being made on the part of consumers to control prices on the market, instead of leaving this control as heretofore entirely in the hands of the producers. Not being contented with passive resistance, the strikers have dictated prices at which they will buy and have done violence to stores and their keepers. Trade unionism mistrusts this new socialism which may prove to work against the socialism of the working producers.-Charles Gide, Economic Journal, December, 1911. R. W. F.

Das kommunale Leben der modernen Grossstadt.-The modern German cities of 100,000 or more population are endeavoring to meet fairly the perplexing questions of community welfare. The influence of politics does not interfere to any great extent with progressive action. Annual conferences of city executive leaders are held for the study of questions of civic interest. Already much has been done to secure the best water supply, the best commercial, technical, and general schools including forest schools for feeble children, eating-places for school children, school dentists and clinics for the care of teeth, hospitals and preventives for contagious diseases, flower gardens, parks and playgrounds, paving and street cleaning, river tunnels, dry docks, banks, etc. All this is counted but a start in the right direction. -Dr. Paul Fuss, Jahrbuch für Gesetzgebung, Verwaltung und Volkswirtschaft_im deutschen Reich, IV. Heft, 1911. R. W. F.

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