and for this purpose small arms and parks of artillery were provided. In this way the habits of family-life and the usages of civilized communities were gradually introduced. The execution of the laws was committed to religious brotherhoods, the Jesuits reserving to themselves the privilege of serving the sick. The extensive knowledge of medicine possessed by the Fathers, and their ingenious and prudent charity during seasons of terrible epidemic, which occurred at frequent intervals, greatly facilitated their spiritual dominion over the hearts and souls of the natives. Unhappily, a misunderstanding between them and Bishop Bernardine de Cardenas, in 1640, and John Palafox, Bishop of Angelopolis, in 1647, gave a rude shock to the prosperity of the new State. Charges the most improbable were brought against the Jesuits, who were accused of having no higher object in view than to secure for themselves the treasures of Paraguay. The neighbouring missions of the province of Chiquitos were no less prosperous than those of Paraguay. Even at the present day the expulsion of the Jesuits from those missions calls forth feelings of sincere regret, and has unquestionably retarded for centuries the progress of Indo-American civilization.'

The progress of Christianity in Africa was incomparably slower than in America, the missionary labours of the Capuchins being confined to the Portuguese settlements of Mozambique, Monomotapa, and Qiloa, on the eastern, and of Congo, Angola, Benguela, Cacongo, and Loango, on the western side of the Continent; and to the French settlements on the Isle de Bourbon and Isle de France.2 The lack of success in these missions is mainly attributable to the ferocious barbarism and shocking immorality of the natives and to the unhealthiness of the climate.

$ 350. Theological Science in the Catholic Church.

+Werner, Hist. of Apologetical and Controversial Literature, 3 Vol. IV. By the same, Hist. of Catholic Theology, from the Council of Trent to our own Day, Munich, 1866. Du Pin, Nouvelle Biblioth. des auteurs eccl. Richard Simon, Hist. crit. des principaux commentateurs. Notices concerning celebrated post-Tridentine Theologians, in "The Catholic," years 1863, 1864, 1865, and 1866, revised ed. by Hurter, Nomenclator literarius recentioris theologiæ, Eniponti, 1871 sq., Fasc. 1-4. The principal works of this epoch, and particularly on Dogma and Exegesis, reprinted at Paris, in Migne, Cursus completus theologiæ, 28 vols., and likewise sacræ scripturæ, 29 vols., 4to.

Historical facts have all a more or less intimate connection with each other. The disturbance caused by any great movement extends in every direction, producing everywhere more or less agitation. Consonant with this law, the struggle against Protestantism, the founding of new Religious Orders, and the controversies that broke

Bach (for twenty years a resident of South America), The Jesuits and their Mission of Chiquitos, in South America, published by Kriegh, Lps., 1843.

2 Külb, Voyages of Missionaries to Africa, from the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Century, Ratisbon, 1861.

3 In this work of Werner's we have at length obtained a comprehensive and clear idea of the controversy started by Luther and Zwinglius, and carried on by their Protestant followers against Catholics.

out in the very bosom of the Church, were the occasion, if not the cause, of that remarkable and very decided activity in theological science so characteristic of this epoch. It now became evident to Catholic theologians that if they would successfully repel the assaults of Protestants they must give special attention to the study of dogmatics, and to this they seriously applied themselves, not as formerly from a speculative point of view, but mainly in connection with historical facts, an alliance which had now become more necessary than ever before, in view of the peculiar tactics adopted by the pretended reformers. The contributions of the Jesuits to theological science were invaluable, though the other Religious Orders were equally active, and their labours equally useful. The eminent services of Melchior Canus were very justly the pride of the Spanish Dominicans. He was selected by the University of Salamanca, on account of his extraordinary ability, to represent that famous seat of learning at the Council of Trent, where he became distinguished even among that celebrated body of eminent divines (†1560). His best known work is that entitled De Locis Theologicis, in twelve books, being an admirable introduction to the study of dogmatic theology. It contains very useful researches on the sources, the importance, and the utility of dogmatic theology; of its relations to other branches of science, and of the application of philosophy to theology. The characteristics of the work are deep and vigorous thought, great originality, and terseness and energy of expression.

Denys Petau (Petavius), of Orléans, was, beyond all question, the most learned theologian the Society of Jesus produced. His works are of such solidity and depth, and withal so complete, that anyone desirous to make a serious study of theology must necessarily consult them. Apart from his labours in publishing the works of many historical and philosophical writers, as, for instance, those of Epiphanius, of Synesius, of Nicephorus, and of the Emperor Julian, and his own work on history and astronomy, entitled Rationale Temporum, which of itself formed an epoch in literature, his celebrated book, known as Theologica Dogmata, attracted universal attention. It was intended that this work should be a complete exposition of the teachings professed everywhere and at all times by the Catholic Church, in contradistinction to the changing creeds of heretics. Unfortunately, the premature death of the author, in 1652, prevented its completion. It seems a marvel that the short space of a single life should have been sufficient to accomplish labours so considerable, in a manner so exact and conscientious, and in every way so remarkable. The Latinity of Father Petau is easy and graceful, and his expositions clear and methodical. Combining, in a comprehensive and masterly way, the sciences of history and dogmatics, he was the first to treat successfully

Freiburg, Eccl. Cyclopæd., s. v. Canus; apud Werner, Hist. of Apol., etc., Vol. IV. Good ed., Padua, 1762. See Vol. I., p. 14, note 1.

dogmatic teaching from an historical point of view; while his intimate knowledge of Platonic philosophy enabled him to correct the numerous errors of the Fathers of the Church in regard to Plato's teachings.

In the controversies which the Protestant revolt necessarily occasioned, Eck, Cochlaeus, Emser, Faher, Erasmus, Gropper, Pighius, and Stanislaus Hosius became very justly distinguished. Mention should also be made of the excellent work entitled "German Theology," published at Münster, in 1528, by the humble and saintly Berthold, Bishop of Chiemsee. Its object was announced to be "to supply authentic information to a deluded people, and to point out what was to be received as certain truth, and on what grounds." This little work, whether considered from a grammatical or theological point of view, is one of the most interesting of controversial writings in the whole of the Catholic literature of Germany. Mention should also be made of the labours of John Nas (1534-1590), of the Order of St. Francis, and Auxiliary Bishop of Brixen, which were, in their way, very important.'

But of all the theologians of this age, the most eminent beyond comparison was Robert Bellarmine, who was born at Montepulciano, in Tuscany, October 4, 1542, and entered the Society of Jesus in 1560. Extremely severe towards himself, an enemy to all indulgence, and an indefatigable worker, he left behind him writings so numerous and valuable that no better evidence of the holiness and self-sacrifice of his life could be required. He was a successful preacher, but was especially distinguished for the ability with which he taught the various branches of theology. Having been sent to the University of Louvain by the general, Francis Borgia, to complete his theological studies, he was there appointed to a chair of theology in the year 1670, and for six or seven years continued to hold this post of honour and influence. While here he wrote a Hebrew grammar and a sort of patrology or biographical sketches of ecclesiastical writers (De scriptoribus ecclesiasticis), a work which is highly esteemed even at the present day. Having been called to Rome, he again taught theology for twelve consecutive years, and there composed a work on Controversies, the full title of which is Disputationes de controversis Christianæ fidei articulis, libri IV. He was intimately acquainted with all the literature of Protestantism. The works of Luther, Melanchthon, Beza, Calvin, of the Socinians, and in fact of all the enemies of the Church, were familiar to him. The various points in controversy and

'Enchiridion locorum communium adv. Lutherum et alios hostes ecclesiæ, Landeshuti, 1525.

3

1 New edition, by Reithmeier, Munich, 1852. Freiburg Eccl. Cyclopæd., Vol. X., p. 884 sq.; Fr. tr., Vol. 23, p. 334 sq. Hist. and Polit. Papers, Vol. VII., p. 113-124. Schoepf, Joh. Nasus, etc., Bozen, 1860. Dr. Raess, Converts, Vol. I., p. 298 sq. First edition, Rome, 1581-1592, 3 vols., fol., besides many other editions; recudi curavit, Fr. Sausen, Mogunt, 1842 sq.; a favourite ed. is that of Naples, 1856-1859; Germ. transl., by Gumposch, Augsburg, 1842 sq. Opera omnia, ed. Justinus Fèvre, publ. by Louis Vivès, Paris, in 12 vols., 4to.

the true state of every question were set forth by him with precision and judicial fairness. In his exegetics he gave, as a rule, a brief statement of the points which he intended either to develop or refute. His demonstrations, based upon tradition, are unusually full and satisfactory. Of his exegetical works, his commentary on the Psalms deserves special mention, it being remarkable for lucidity and accuracy of thought, as well as for earnestness and an intelligent and sympathetic appreciation of the meaning of this portion of the Sacred Writings. This praise would be the more cordially granted to Bellarmine's Commentary, had not the author in numerous passages, where the Vulgate deviates from the Hebrew, and where the two cannot be reconciled without doing violence to the original, uniformly followed the reading of the former.1

In 1599 he was, much against his own will, created a cardinal, but this elevation made no change in the austere habits of his life. His simple manners and incessant labours were a standing rebuke to the listless lives of the great dignitaries with whom he came in contact.

In 1602 he was appointed Archbishop of Capua, and in consequence was obliged to leave Rome. He remained in Capua until the year 1606, when he was relieved of his pastoral charge by Paul V. During his stay there he wrote an excellent catechism and a work addressed to his nephew, entitled "Admonitio ad Episcopum Theanensem, etc.," which of itself is an ample proof of the energy and conscientiousness with which he applied himself to the discharge of his new functions. Finally, his deep and sincere piety and his humble resignation to the will of God are abundantly attested in his ascetical works, entitled "De ascensione mentis in Deum per scalas rerum creatarum" and "De gemitu columbæ, seu de bono lacrymarum, etc." He died September 17, 1621.

During the same period Peter Canisius rendered a signal service to both clergy and laity by the publication, in 1554, of a Larger and a Smaller Catechism. The former was a compendium of Christian doctrine, bearing the title "Summa doctrinæ Christiana" (Catechismus Major); and the latter, an abridgment of the former, published in 1561, and having the title "Institutiones Christianæ, sive parvus catechismus Catholicorum." A still shorter edition of this abridgment was published for the use of children. It was not long before the "Summa" was translated into every living language. The edition published at Paris in 1686, by the authority of the archbishop, enumerates more than four hundred previously issued. It is said that it was largely instrumental in converting numerous Protestants. Even the Roman Catechism (Catechismus Romanus ad parochos), published in 1566, which is a repository of all kinds of information needful to clergymen in giving religious instruction, did not supersede that of

'See Freiburg Eccl. Cyclopæd., art. “ Bellarmine," towards the end. (TR.) Riess, Life of Blessed Peter Canisius, ch. III., pp. 109-125.

Canisius. The style of the Roman Catechism, which is clear and elegant, is mainly the work of the celebrated linguist, Paul Manutius, who revised the manuscript after it came from the hands of its authors, who were three Dominicans. This work having been written by order of the Council of Trent, became, like the synodal decrees themselves, a sort of Rule of Faith. Minor controversial works were also written at this period by the Jesuits Gregory of Valencia (Analysis fidei Catholicæ, † 1603), Francis Coster (Enchiridion controversiarum nostri temporis, † 1619), and Martin Becanus (Manuale controvers., libb. V.), those of the last two being highly esteemed. Becanus was also the author of an Analogia Veteris et Novi Testamenti, in which he shows the harmony between the two. Valuable works were written on particular dogmas of faith, and the Jansenists, Nicole and Arnauld, gained quite a name by the ability with which they defended the Blessed Eucharist and the Sacrament of Penance against the attacks of the Reformers, in their work Perpétuité de la foi catholique.

In lands like Spain, which lay at a distance from the turbulent scenes of the Reformation, the study of medieval philosophy and theology, particularly that of St. Thomas, was revived, and calm and systematic expositions given of the principal teachings of the Church. The ablest representative of this theological tendency was the Jesuit, Suarez († 1617), who taught philosophy and theology successively at Segovia, Valladolid, Alcalà, Salamanca, Rome, and Coimbra (in Portugal). He was also well versed in many of the sciences, though his method of treating them in the lecture-room lacked conciseness and directness. Other members of the Order, however, notably Maldonatus and Possevin, achieved a certain measure of success in their efforts to simplify the science of theology.3

So much of the thought of this age was given to the discussion of dogmatic teachings that comparatively little attention was bestowed on the study of moral theology. It was not, however, wholly neglected; and, as in the preceding age, the efforts in this direction took the form either of scholasticism and casuistry, or of mysticism and asceticism. Besides the treatises of Erasmus and Juan Luis Virès, the labours of those Jesuits who wrote on special portions of moral theology deserve separate mention. It will be sufficient to enumerate the names of Toletus († 1596), Vasquez († 1604), Laymann († 1635), Escobar († 1669), and Busenbaum († 1668), whose work, entitled Medulla theologiæ moralis fucili ac perspicua methodo resolvens casus conscientiæ, etc., Monast, 1645, was extensively used. We shall again have occasion to refer to the mystical and ascetical writers who

Cate

Catech. romanus ex decreto Conc. Trid. ad ed. principem Manutianam a., 1566, ed. Ritter, Vrat., 1837; ed. Smets, Lat. et Germ., Bielef., 1844 sq.; ed. Rom., 1845. chism of the Council of Trent, trans. by J. Donovan, Dublin, 1829, Baltimore, 1829.

+Werner, Francis Suarez, and the Scholasticism of the last Centuries, Ratisbon, 1861, 2 vols. Works, 23 vols., fol., Lyons, 1603 sq., Mentz, 1612 sq., Antwerp, 1614 sq., Venice, 1740; new ed., in 28 vols., sm. 4to, by Louis Vivès, Paris, 1856, 1872. Summs, seu compendium, by Fr. Noël, S. J., 2 vols., fol., Genev., 1732, Paris, 1861. (Tr.) 3 Cf. Possevin, Bibliotheca selecta, Colon, 1607, pp. 120-130.