quarrels over articles, claimed by each, children must get some idea of a right in another to own is clear. But the fact of parents interfering in so many cases, though this interference may teach ideas of the privileges of others, vitiates the results by not letting the idea develop of itself, if it will. The cases in which children come to an agreement by themselves show that the child here recognizes some right in another; also cases where one child gives up to another more persistent. These cases, it is significant, occur among children six or seven years of age and older. Younger children do not settle in this way. This seems to give support to the view we have taken in our anthropological study, that the conception of a proprietary right is a growth. One fact shown in this material is that in children under six the desire for the article to say, "I want it" is sufficient reason to the child to have or own it, and it is because of this that quarrels over ownership are so common in children. Property is also one of the first things children quarrel over.

To the request to describe an instance in which a child long desired some toy or plaything, e.g., wagon, gun, doll, and very unexpectedly received it as a gift, 305 returns — 133 from females and 77 from males, ages four to fifteen yearswere received.

The state of children in the first few moments is either extreme exaltation, in which the impulse is to run, dance, or shout; or all action seems to be inhibited; or there is a combination of these two, much like and often approaching hysteria. After this first shock the one idea is to have every one see it and make much of it. The child lavishes the utmost amount of care, will scarcely touch the article, will allow no one else to touch it, will not let it leave his sight. Some sentences are quoted here, taken at random from different papers:

Danced around with great glee. Could not speak one word. I laughed and cried at once. At first could not say anything but just stood and looked at it. Jumped upon the floor, shouting and clapping her hands. So pleased she could not stop laughing. Jumped up and down, clapping her hands and screaming with delight. Did nothing but jump and laugh. Did not speak for five minutes. Face was all smiles, eyes wide open. Became bashful, ran and got behind her mother. Stood as though struck dumb for one moment, then danced and fairly screamed. So overcome she could not say a word. Could not speak for joy. Burst into tears and could not be comforted for some time. Was afraid to touch it.

This naïve spontaneity of the child gives to us an insight into the effects of property on the mind. Things are never so real, never so large, as in childhood. As the individual grows older his experiences have broadened his horizon so much that it takes great events or circumstances to affect him. As Höffding says, the young man on beholding for the first time some grand and beautiful spectacle in nature, as a scene in the Alps, feels his soul swell up within him, his personality expands, embracing it all, the whole aspect of the world and life seems changed and new, while the man who has looked on the same scene many times has no such feelings. He may appreciate it more, but his personality has enlarged to that extent that he is affected but little. This is why, in studying men, the difficulty of finding the things which affect the mind is so great; not so in the child.

So it is we see that these spontaneous reactions of the child on receiving some long-desired article give evidence of not a little value in respect to the large part that ownership plays in widening the scope of the mind and in enlarging self and self-feelings.

The effect of ownership of property in which he has an exclusive right has a marked effect upon the child's attitude towards property in general. Not only do children take better care of belongings to which they have an undivided right,

but they are more inclined to respect the property rights of others, especially if this be of kinds similar to their own. The growth of this property sense is conditioned by the age of the child.

140 out of 150 cases show that children take much better care of their own property than that of another, and that children are careful of their own possessions. Only 10 cases were reported where owning property made them less careful; these were cases of very young children.1 47 cases, or 31.3 per cent., of 150 cases show that children not only are careful of their own possessions, but, after six years of age (average eight or nine years), that possession of a certain article makes them more careful of other articles of the same kind belonging to others, and articles belonging to others in general..

These returns bring some very emphatic evidence to bear upon the question whether it is best for schools to furnish children with books. That they should not seems clear unless the books are given to children outright. An examination of all the returns, and this one in particular, shows that ownership adds a dignity to the child, expands the self and selffeelings, and stimulates feelings of pride. The things owned in childhood are very close to the child's inner being. As one little girl said, when a book was returned to her with pages turned down and leaves soiled, "I felt as though a part of myself had been injured." These things appear large to children. Their life in a large part is wrapped up in the little world of their toys, dolls, wagons, and books. So when we say it is better for a child to own its books and other school appliances, we bring not only evidence of its practicability as a saving and better keeping of these things, but we also urge it for higher reasons, claiming that the sense of possession

1 Six out of ten only had ages given; four of these were four years of age or younger.

fills a gap in the child's nature, adding to his dignity and selfrespect, expanding the feelings of self, giving an idea of worth and responsibility, and that these are factors of importance in the child's education, and we believe that because of these very facts the child takes more interest in his books, and that he gets more out of them.

M., 5. Tom was always careless about his books. The books were furnished by the school, and he had ruined two books since he began going to school. His teacher gave him a picture book for being regular in attendance, and he was very much pleased with it. He would not allow the other boys to look at his book or touch it unless their hands were clean. Soon after he was given this book he began to erase the pencil marks from his schoolbook, and he said, "I don't suppose teacher wants her books all dirty any more than I do.”

F. Used to tear books that they gave her to look at, tear whole leaves out and fold others over and over again. But when one Christmas she received a book of her own she was just as careful of it, and afterward she never tore the leaves of books or even turned them

over.

A point of not a little interest to the writers arises from the fact that 47 cases, or 31.3 per cent., of 150 cases show that it is out of their own possessions, by making objective those feelings of care of property, love of possession, pride in ownership, or, in other words, realizing that such feelings exist in others as well as in themselves, that respect for others' property comes and some notion of a proprietary right obtains. In the question on quarrels among the young children ages three to four and five to six the desire or wish for the article seemed to be a sufficient reason to them to possess it. "I want it," was enough. They could not see then why they should not have it. Among the children at this age we find little care or respect for others' property. The children of the 47 cases above were, on the average, eight or nine years old, some much younger, some older. In these cases the process was purely psychological. The child reasoned from its own desires,

namely, that they were as strong in others; that if they did not respect the possessions and property of others, they could not expect others to respect theirs. This corresponds to the growth of the conception of property in the mind of primitive

man.

From this study it is easily seen that the relations between childhood and property are very close and very important. They throw light not only on psychological phenomena, but also bring up questions in pedagogy of interest and value. Property is a great factor in developing the mind of the child. We see its relation here to the development of the five primary senses in early childhood; its power in teaching the child about his own self; how it feeds self-consciousness, gives feelings of importance and worth, enlarges personality, develops respect for property in others by having property of one's own, quickens activity of mind. All that property has done in evolving the mind of man is repeated to some extent in the history of childhood. Above all, property getting in childhood is of prime importance because it is anticipatory. Adult life is largely made up of acquiring property. The child in his tenacious acquisition, his extreme selfishness, is preparing himself for this struggle. Professor Groos says: "I regard the instinct whose mandate in the struggle for life is, Keep what you can get, as very important. Men and animals must learn not only to acquire but also to defend and protect their property with tenacious energy.'

PROPERTY, PERSONALITY, AND FEAR

In answer to the questions, What have you observed among children concerning the feeling of ownership in property and the influence it had over their attitude both toward the property and valuables in general, e.g., care of books, tools, or a new article of clothing? and On wearing a new dress