ETHICAL TEACHING IN SCHOOLS WITH By J. S. MACKENZIE, M.A., Litt.D., Professor of Philosophy in the University College of Cardiff, Wales. THE fundamental importance of moral education in schools is now pretty generally recognised. Hardly any one who is concerned with education at all seriously doubts that the formation of character is the greatest service that the school can render to the nation. But it is recognised also in our time, more widely perhaps than ever before, that the range of moral obligation is much larger than that of the State. My duty to my neighbour is now seen to include not only family, parochial, patriotic, and imperial duties, but also many others, both public and private, which are as wide as humanity itself. Hence the question-How may moral education help in improving the relations between different races ?-is readily seen to have great practical significance; and it can hardly be necessary to expound its meaning or to emphasise its urgency. That in a general way moral education may be expected to be of great use for this particular purpose, is sufficiently obvious. The cultivation of any moral quality must tend to improve the relations between human beings under almost any conditions. In particular, the cultivation of some of the most fundamental qualities such as kindness, manners, justice, selfcontrol, would clearly be of great value in this respect. There are, however, some more especial considerations on which it seems advisable to insist as bearing upon this particular problem; and without attempting to be exhaustive, we may refer to them under five general headings. In dealing with them it will be as well to take as our guide the carefully graduated syllabuses of the Moral Education League. I The first question that presents itself may be stated thus:— 1. How may Moral Education cultivate the Conception of Human Personality and its Rights ?-This conception is obviously of the utmost value in removing social and international injustice, and few things can be more important than its clear recognition and a ready and hearty response to its claims by mankind in general. It has already helped in many ways. In most countries it has at least abolished anything in the nature of explicit slavery. It has elevated the position of women. It has improved the relations between masters and workmen. But it has worked somewhat fitfully, and, in particular, it has often been checked by the bars of race and colour. * Syllabuses, both for Elementary and Secondary Schools, can be obtained, free of charge, on application at 6, York Buildings, Adelphi, London. It should be the task of moral education to give it a firmer hold in the minds of the young. Now in this, as in most other aspects of moral education, the study of the history and literature of our own and other nations must always be among the most potent auxiliaries. Any intelligent study of history is sure to bring out the central place that has been occupied at almost all periods of human development by the struggle for freedom. Almost every period of history affords illustrations of the way in which certain races or classes have regarded themselves as specially privileged, and as having some sort of divine right to reduce others to subjection; and few themes are more spiritstirring to the young than the record of the struggles by which such dominant races have been gradually forced to recognise the equal humanity of those over whom they thus sought to rule. The rights of life, freedom, property, of education, have from time to time been regarded as a kind of preserve for the ruling classes or nation, and men have only learned by slow degrees, and generally by the insistent pressure of "hungry peoples," that there can be no real and lasting elevation of any class or race unless the whole level of human life around them is at the same time raised. Among ourselves it is chiefly as bearing upon the relations between employer and employed that this conception of equality of rights has recently been emphasised. It has gradually come to be generally admitted that the first charge upon any industrial system is the proper care and freedom of its workers. But history is eloquent of the gradual recognition of similar rights as between subject and sovereign peoples, and even in our own time it is not difficult to find object-lessons of the same. Special topics, such as the emancipation of the slaves in America, the French Revolution, the relations between races in India, Australia, South Africa, or the Congo State, may easily be used for such historical illustration. In literature, also, it is not hard to find abundance of suitable material. There are many stirring songs and striking poems to enforce the moral that “A man's a man for a' that." In the reading of Shakespeare, the equality of races may be brought home by the heroic character of Othello, by the characterisation of the Welsh Fluellen, and by the utterance of Shylock-" Hath not a Jew eyes? Hath not a Jew hands, organs, dimensions, senses, affections, passions ?" Modern literature is certainly full of this humane note. The Bible may also be called into its service. For the Christian at least there is neither Jew nor Greek, bond nor free. The teaching of the Buddha, and of other Oriental sages, and of the Greek and Roman Stoics, is hardly less explicit. History and literature may thus both be used as instruments for the inculcation of such moral lessons. The study of the geography and physical features of different countries-when intelligently treated-has also a powerful influence in enlarging the outlook and widening the sympathies of the young. In the more definite and systematic form of moral instruction, what would be required is a more reflective attempt to cultivate that habit of mind which is described in general terms as "Respect for oneself as Person, and for all others as Persons," without regard for distinctions of race, age, sex, status, or any other kind of difference. This more reflective attitude would grow naturally out of those concrete studies to which reference has been made; but may be cultivated also by maxims and discussions, adapted to the ages of the pupils. In the Syllabus of the Moral Education League for Elementary Schools places are provided for the introduction of such lessons under the headings-Honesty (respect for the property of others); Justice (to all human beings, irrespective of sex, age, creed, social position, nationality or race; and to animals, tame and wild); Honour and Self-respect. (The lessons for infants and juniors would naturally be concerned primarily with the more simple aspects of the subjects, such as respect for the property of others, and fairness in games. Those for seniors could treat more broadly of the general conception of Justice and respect for self, and for all other human beings. In the Syllabus for Secondary Schools, rather more opportunities are presented for emphasising the same points, especially under the headings— Honesty, Justice, Humanity, Self-respect, and the Development of Social Relationships.) The second point is intimately related to the foregoing. 2. Moral Education should lead to an Appreciation of the Essential Likeness of the Various Races and Classes, in Spite of their Points of Superficial Differences.-Such points of difference may generally be shown to be largely the results of diverse physical and social conditions; and an attempt should be made, even in the early stages of education, to bring out and emphasise this fact. The study of the history and literature of different countries helps. powerfully towards this recognition of a common humanity under a great variety of forms. It is one of the chief arguments for the retention of Latin and Greek, not indeed as universally compulsory subjects, but as important elements in a liberal education. At a later stage the same end may be secured by the encouragement of foreign travel; but this should be preceded by some study of the history and manners-and more incidentally of the geography -of the countries that are to be visited, so that there may be a solid basis for sympathetic appreciation. In bringing our pupils face to face with ages and countries, where the great issues of life were fought, by men differing in race, or creed, or colour, or habits of life, or form of social organisation, we lead them insensibly to feel how insignificant are such distinctions in comparison with the common aims and interests of mankind. It is in this way that the spirit of toleration may best be fostered. The study of history, which should of course for this purpose be pursued in close conjunction with that of geography, is the best instrument for this purpose, and care should be taken to utilise it to the best advantage. There is sometimes a tendency, especially in books for the young, to over-emphasise the patriotic side, to dwell upon our "glorious victories" and pass over our inglorious defeats, to advertise the wrong-doings of our enemies and be studiously blind to any ignoble actions of our own. It would no doubt be depressing and discouraging, especially to the young, to dwell morbidly upon the defects of our own people. We need the kind of inspiration and encouragement that comes of the consciousness that we inherit fine traditions. But this need not prevent us from rejoicing also in the heroic deeds of others, even if they were our own enemies. Such a poem as Browning's " Hervé Riel," or a sympathetic treatment of the career of Joan of Arc (not Shakespeare's, however, nor even Schiller's) would be admirable for this purpose. Faithful stories of the Indian Mutiny might similarly awaken the mind to the fact that the British had not a monopoly of heroism, loyalty, or devotion. In a very different way, the Bible story of the Good Samaritan may help to enforce the same kind of lesson. Many subjects are specially adapted to promote this spirit of toleration, e.g., Justice, Truthfulness, Moderation, Social Organisation, the Development of Social Relationship, Toleration. At certain stages the association of boys and girls in their school work may also be useful in this respect, as tending to familiarise the mind with the conception of unity in essentials along with superficial differences; but the right use of this element requires much care. We now come to what is really the most central consideration of all for our present purposes, viz., the recognition that 3. It is Qualities of Character that form the Real Basis of Superiority in Men or Nations.-It is in emphasising this, of course, that the chief value of moral education would be ultimately felt; but it would be felt more from its general spirit than from its more particular lessons. In this, as in other respects, literature would come to its aid. English literature is certainly rich in its sugges tions that "Worth makes the man and want of it the fellow," that "'Tis only noble to be good," that "Kind hearts are more than coronets, and simple faith than Norman blood," that "Maids"-and others" should strive to be good," "And let who will be clever." In prose, the writings of Carlyle and Ruskin are specially valuable for their insistence on this; but no doubt it is only at the higher stages of educational work that much use could be made of them. The literature of most other countries supply works of similar prophets. It is, however, not merely on moral qualities, in the narrower sense, that emphasis should be laid, but rather on all those qualities of character that make for the promotion of the complete human ideal. The "intellectual virtues" should certainly be cultivated as well as those that are called more distinctly "moral"; and in the cultivation of these nearly all school subjects may have a place. The study of history would in particular have a special value by calling attention to the solid excellences by which great peoples, such as the Greeks and Romans, have been characterised, and also by bringing out the fact that those who are politically subject are not always inferior in some important human qualities that win our admiration. The Greeks are not the only race who, in one way or another, have conquered their conquerors. It would be easy to show that England may learn. much from her dependencies in India, Africa, and elsewhere. Indeed, it is in the attempt to educate and assimilate subject-races that the emphasis on fundamental qualities of character becomes specially important. One of the chief difficulties, in particular in the relations between more developed and less developed races, one that can easily be illustrated from the colour problem in the United States, is that the latter are apt to acquire certain forms of superficial cleverness and technical knowledge and skill before they have gained the more essential elements of intellectual and moral character. This is due largely to the fact that in the more developed races themselves the emphasis is apt to be laid unduly on the former. Most of those who have made any serious study of educational methods would agree that this is at present the tendency against which it is most important to be on our guard. A nation, no less than an individual, which despises the more liberal and humane aspects of education, because it thinks them unpractical, is indeed almost sure to be out-stripped in the end-even in material prosperity-by one which regards education as a generous preparation for that life of service to the community whereby each member's moral and intellectual character may be perfected. Such an idealism in education has been the making both of Germany and Japan. It is still true on the whole that all things are added to those who seek first the Kingdom of God. Besides, however, emphasising in these ways the common and |