PROPOSITIONS.

Words, taken singly, express ideas; but in order to think, we must put ideas together. A thing is derived from to think; it is, in fact, whatever makes us think ; and it is pretty clear that, were there no things, we could not think.

Therefore, whenever we think, we must think about some thing or person.

This thing, or person, is called the subject of our thought.1

Whatever we say (or write) about the subject is called the predicate (which means 'what is declared or asserted').2

But it is necessary to show that this predicate belongs to the subject; and for this purpose the copula is used.3

The word 'copula,' means a link or chain. It is, really, always some part of the verb 'to be,' and it is employed to join the predicate to the subject.

These three parts, the subject, copula, and predicate, when put together, form a proposition, a word which means 'an opinion laid down,' for example :—

'Subject' comes from the Latin subjacere, 'to cast, or put down.' The word here means whatever is 'put down,' concerning which an assertion is to be made.

2 Predicate' is derived from prædicare, to speak out, or proclai m

3 Copula, the Latin for a tie or band; from copulare, 'to couple.'

4 The term 'proposition' is from the Latin proponere; composed of pro, before, and ponere, to place. It is an affirmation 'placed before' us, or laid down for our consideration.

subj. cop. pred.

1. The grass is green (a proposition).

subj. c. pred.

2. The dog barks (a proposition).

subj. cop. pred.

3. The pen was mended (a proposition).

In the first of these propositions, the subject is ' grass;' the predicate green (what is declared of grass); and the copula, is, holds them together.

In the second, the dog is the subject; and barks is both the copula and the predicate; for it not only asserts something of the dog, but also shows that he exists or 'is.'

In the third, the pen is the subject; was the copula ; and mended the predicate.

Propositions are of three kinds: 1. Enunciative. 2. Active, and 3. Passive.

1. A proposition is enunciative when the predicate expresses the mere state or condition of the subject.

2. A proposition is active when the subject is represented as doing something.

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3. A proposition is passive when the subject is represented as acted on, or having something done to it. Of the above propositions, grass is green' is an enunciative form: it simply declares that the subject (grass) is in a certain condition expressed by the dicate (green); but it does not assert that the subject either acts or is acted on.

pre

The second is an active form of proposition; for it declares that the subject (the dog) does something (barks).

The third is a passive form: it shows that the sub

ject (the pen) received an action, or had something done to it (mended).

EXERCISE VII.

State to which of these three forms the following propositions belong.

The boy is attentive-The chair was broken-He writes-The girl is clever-The affair was settled— This is an excellent work-I am much pleased-The man refused to help us- -She is in a hurry-Cæsar was an illustrious general-The woman deserves great praise-You have made a mistake The passage was made in ten days—The general marched against the enemy-She has great discretion-The account was published-Leonidas was a hero-The child criesThis affair is of no importance-This writer achieved a vast reputation-Justice is the queen of virtues-Louis XII. was called the father of his people-All were invited to subscribe-The best portion of this work is the introduction-The colouring is gaudy-His style is wonderfully concise-Patriotism is the source of his inspiration-This picture of emigrant life is graphic and impressive-The book is well executed, and to younger readers we can recommend it as a work which they will be glad to add to their libraries.

EXERCISE VIII.

Write eighteen propositions, consisting only of their three parts; viz., the subject, copula, and predicate:six of them to be enunciative, six active, and six passive, like the following examples :

Subjects of propositions often consist of several words, as 'To rise early is conducive to health.' the subject is not 'to rise,' but to 'rise early.'

Here

EXERCISE IX.

Use the following expressions as subjects of propositions.

To be just in all our dealings-To compose elegantly -The habit of writing-To combat his argumentsWalking before breakfast Sketching from Nature-To play without quarrelling-To write a foreign language accurately-A friend of mine-One of the noblest of Christian virtues-All the ship's guns-The companions of our childhood-Some of his adherents— This glorious news-Very accurate experiments-King John of France-The habit of reading by candle-light -Collecting antiquities-These sensible remarks— Persons born deaf-Many well-known specimens of this sort of literature-The best way to succeed.

COMPOUND PREDICATES.

Predicates of propositions also are frequently not expressed by a single term, but consist of several words, as: The affair is of importance.'

EXERCISE X.

Use the following expressions as predicates of propositions.

At home Not far off-In the garden-A state of pilgrimage-Wrapped in his cloak-Quite aware of his purpose Not much better Plunged in a deep reverie Far from being of the same opinion Under the necessity of refusing-In good health Wholly without assistance In great fear of the consequences A man of reserved habits In doubt

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Unequal to considerable

All expressions which are added to a proposition are called its complements.

The word 'complement' means that which fills up, or completes, the sense of a proposition.

In the proposition, 'The boy was reproved,' the sense is perfectly intelligible; but when we say, 'The idle boy was sternly reproved by his master,' we have much fuller information; for the sort of boy, the manner of the reproof, and the person who reproved, are all made

''Complement' is derived from the Latin verb complère, 'to fill up or complete.'

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