parts, such as boilers, engines, magazines, shell-rooms, and battery, were protected by armor that could not be pierced at a distance of 200 yards by any gun that could be brought to bear against her at sea. She carried the heaviest guns afloat, also a ram strong enough to sink any wooden ship, and could steam at 14 knots an hour. Her defects were unprotected steering gear, a weak stern, due to the lifting propeller well, and too great length. The Defence and Resistance were constructed after a similar type, with length reduced 99 feet.

In 1861 England was in the same relative position as France in 1859, but ship construction was pushed with great rapidity both in the private yards and the royal dock-yards, in consequence of which, in 1865, England had thirty iron-clads, and had reasserted her superiority at sea. In 1861, following the four iron-clads above mentioned, the English laid down eleven iron-clads, representing four different types. The list included the Achilles, two ships of the Hector type, five wooden ships, and three ships of the Northumberland type. The armor of the Achilles extended the whole length of the ship at the water-line. The ships of the Hector type were completely protected above the water, and amidships the armor was carried below the water.

Hector and Valiant.

The wood ships had armor similar to that of the Warrior, extending from below the water-line to the upper deck. In the Northumberland type the rudder head and steering gear were protected by armor, which extended forward in a belt the whole length of the ship, In this type the armor, instead of being of uniform thickness as in the Warrior, varied in thickness according to the relative importance of the protected parts, being 5 inches over the water-line throughout the space occupied by the engines, boilers, and magazine, and in wake of the battery, diminishing to 4 inches at the bow and stern.

This period marks the beginning of the remarkable development in naval ordnance which is still going on. The 100-pounder Armstrong took the place of the 68pounder in the broadside battery of ships, but the thickness of armor was not increased on that account, so that by the time the Gloire was completed her 68pounder battery was practically obsolete, and her armor of 4 inches not thick enough to withstand the fire of service guns. To show the progress of the race which had now begun between armor and guns it is only necessary to state that during the experiments at Shoeburyness in 1862, two shots, with 150 lb. spherical projectiles and 50 lbs. of powder, passed completely through the Warrior target, hitherto considered invin

cible.

The French introduced the 74 and 15-ton guns into their armaments in 1864, but it was not till 1865 that they determined to increase the thickness of their armor, which led to the laying down of the Océan, protected at the water-line by 8-inch armor on 32 backing. The armament consisted of four 23-ton guns in a central battery, at the corners of which were four 154-ton guns in barbettes; the whole protected by 6inch armor on 244-inch backing. Three other ships were built of a nearly similar type. Even before the Océan was launched in 1868 the armor she carried was inadequate to withstand the fire of the 23-ton guns

then in use. The Richelieu, Colbert, and Trident, begun in 1868-69, were plated with 9-inch armor. The hulls, with the exception of the extremities, were of wood. They carried six 23-ton and one 154-ton

gun.

After the Franco-German war it was decided that the French navy should have an armored fleet of 16 first-class, 12 second-class, and 20 coast-service vessels of the first and second class-all to be built of steel. The twin-screw vessel Redoutable was first begun, armored with 14-inch plates over the water-line amidships. The central battery, protected by 10-inch plates, consists of four 23-ton guns. Above the casemate are two 23-ton guns in light half-turrets. The Dévastation, begun in 1876, is one of the most heavily armored, full-rigged armor-clads. The armor belt has a thickness of 15 inches amidships, tapering to 11 inches at the ends. The belt stops 28 feet short of the stern, where it is replaced by an armor bulkhead 11 inches thick, and a 2-inch deck below the water-line. The battery has 9 inches of armor, and the deck over the belt is 24 inches thick. The armament of the Dévastation consists of four 124-inch guns in the armored battery. Before and abaft the battery the sides of the ship tumble home so as to admit of a direct fire ahead and astern within an angle of 15° with the keel. (See Plate XXXV.) Two 104-inch guns are mounted in half-turrets on the upper deck, and can fire both ahead and astern. Six 5-inch guns are distributed along the upper deck. The Amiral Duperré, begun the same year, is larger than the Dévastation. In her the armored central battery is abandoned, and a belt 21 inches thick carried completely round the water-line, above which is an armored deck. On the upper deck are four armored barbettes, each carrying a 48-ton gun. There are fourteen 54-inch rifles forming an unprotected battery between decks, and twenty Hotchkiss machine-guns. The second-class sea-going iron-clads are represented by the Duguesclin, of exactly similar type as the Amiral Duperré, though smaller.

The first-class coast-defence vessels are admirably represented by such ships as the Tonnerre of 5580 tons. (See Plate XXXV.) She has a low hull with a complete armored belt, covered by an armor deck, above which rises a breastwork with a revolving turret above its fore-end, mounting two 104-inch guns.

The second-class coast-service vessels, such as the Tempête, are much the same, only of less displacement and draught. The development of heavy ordnance, begun by the French in 1864, led to a complete change in the construction of ships. Previous ships had been armed with a great number of light guns. The new guns being much heavier were fewer in number, and they could be concentrated and protected with greatly reduced area of armor, though the armor was of a thickness in keeping with the battery carried. Experience in iron construction led to a saving of weight in different parts of the hull, which could be utilized in guns and armor.

Sir E. J. Reed was in 1862 appointed chief constructor of the British navy, and his appointment gave a new and remarkable impetus to naval construction for purposes of war, as he introduced radical changes in the types of British iron-clads, an example soon followed by other nations. The type of ship introduced by him was one carrying behind armor a small number of the largest guns afloat, concentrated amidships, instead of a great number of small guns scattered throughout the ship. The engines, boilers, magazines, and shell-rooms were protected by a belt

of armor fore and aft, extending from 5 feet below to 5 feet above the water line. The concentrated battery was protected at the sides by armor, and from a raking fire by an armor-plated bulkhead. Two guns were placed forward when practicable, protected by a shield of armor-plating around the bow.

This type, allowing a great reduction in the size of iron-clad ships without any loss of offensive or defensive power, was favorably looked upon by the admiralty, and orders were given for the conversion of the three wooden ships, the Enterprise, Favorite, and Research, upon his plans. In the Enterprise the central battery, carrying four guns, and the water-line were protected by armor, and though only of 1000 tons displacement, she carried heavier guns than any vessel

of her date.

battery consisted of fourteen 11-inch smooth bores,, and two 8-inch Parrott rifles, the first of this size car ried into action. The ports were protected by heavy shutters. For two years this vessel was continually on the most severe service, involving blockade duty and close action against fortifications; and during a period of six months, though she was hit 193 times, she was not obliged to go into a home port or ask for assistance.

The Monitor was designed by John Ericsson, her design having been among the competitive designs called for Aug. 7, 1861, and accepted Sept. 16, 1861. Mr. Ericsson it appears had submitted a similar design to the Emperor Napoleon III. in 1854, consisting of an armored deck and armored cupola on a vessel of low free-board, but as the French had already begun the iron-clad batteries before mentioned they were not disposed to try any other experiments at the time.

Enterprise.

In 1863 Sir E. J. Reed's ideas were more perfectly embodied in the construction of the Bellerophon, a ship 300 feet long, 56 feet wide, and draught 21 feet forward and 26 feet aft. While retaining the central battery, the bow-fire was made a prominent feature. Plates 6 inches thick were used to resist the 300 pounder guns, which at this time began to supersede the 100-pounder.

These 6-inch plates were used on the broadside amidships for 90 feet, extending from 5 feet below the water-line to the level of the upper deck. This space contains the central battery of ten 12-ton guns. For

Bellerophon.

ward and abaft the battery the ship is protected by a belt of the same thickness, extending to a depth of 5 feet below the water-line, and rising 6 feet above.

In the mean time the civil war in America had begun, and at its outbreak a special naval committee was appointed to investigate and recommend types of ironclads for the United States. Three distinct types of iron-clads were recommended: the Galena, New Ironsides, and Monitor. The Galena was armored with 24-inch plates, fastened in such

a manner that they were easily racked or broken, and the vessel failed in her first engagement before Fort Darling. The New Ironsides was a casemated iron-clad frigate with a complete armor belt-speed about 6 knots. The armor was 44-inch plates, inclined at 30° on the casemate, backed by 21 inches of oak. The plates were fastened by ironwood screws similar to those used by the French (described hereafter), except that water tightness was insured by counter-sinking rubber tubing into the backing around the bolt ist back of the armor.

The

Ericsson's Cupola Vessel.

the Monitor sprang. There is a diversity of opinion This vessel doubtless represents the idea from which as to whether the credit for the monitor type belongs to Capt. Cowper Coles or Mr. Ericsson. In 1855 Capt. Coles constructed the Nancy Dawson for the

The Rolf Krake.

British government for service in the Sea of Azov during the Crimean war. She was a small turreted vessel intended to fight bows on, really being but little more than a raft carrying a heavy protected gun. The Rolf Krake, designed by Coles, was laid down before the Monitor, but was longer building, so that to Ericsson belongs the credit of having floated the first revolving turreted vessel, though the Monitor was not a sea-going iron-clad, while the Rolf Krake is still a serviceable sea-going vessel.

The Monitor was a flat-bottomed vessel of about 1300 tons displacement, armored on the sides and on the deck, which was only 18 inches above the water. She carried a single revolving turret, mounting two 11

Monitor and Merrimac.

inch smooth-bore guns, having an all-round fire, except directly ahead, where the fire was cut off by an armored pilot tower. The hull was of iron. The side armor was made up of five 1-inch plates, tapering to three plates at the bottom, on 23 inches of backing. The deck was formed of two 1-inch plates on 6 inches of wood. The turret was made up of eleven thicknesses of 1-inch plate. The three inner thicknesses broke joints and were riveted together, thus forming a strong ring of plating, to which the outer plates were attached by through-bolts secured by nuts on the inside. These nuts inside were found to be a source of great danger in the turrets, as shot no larger than a 32-pounder, striking between the bolt-heads, caused these nuts to fly off with great violence.

From 1862 till the close of the war a great number of armored vessels were built. The wood frigate Roanoke was converted into an iron-clad, armored at the water-line with 5 plates and having three turrets, armored with 11-inch laminated plates, each carrying two guns. The vessels next after the Monitor were the Comanche, Catskill, Jason, Lehigh, Montauk, Nahant, Nantucket, Passaic, Weehawken, and Patapsco. These were of 1875 tons displacement, and differed from the Monitor in mounting the pilot-tower on top of the turret, and enlarging the turret to carry two 15-inch smooth-bore guns. Their speed was but little over 5 knots. The success attained by these vessels led to a rapid increase in the number of monitors for coast service.

Screw vessels were not well adapted for service in the Southern rivers, so that a number of heavily armed side-wheel steamers were built, of light draught and having both ends alike. Mr. Ericsson aimed at making the Dictator and Puritan sea-going vessels with high speed and great coal-carrying capacity. The Dictator was completed, but was found to be much heavier than expected, and to have only two-thirds the designed free-board. She could only carry one-half the intended coal supply, and instead of the expected 16 knots she only made 9 knots on her trial trip. The Puritan has never been completed. At the end of the war it was determined to build four wooden double-turreted, sea-going iron-clads-the Miantonomah, Monadnock, Terror, and Amphitrite. They were to carry 6-inch armor on the water-line and 12 inches on the turrets. The Miantonomah safely crossed to England and returned. The vessels becoming antiquated, it was decided in 1874 to break them up and rebuild them in iron; but owing to lack of appropriation they are still unfinished.

The Southern Confederacy, without skilled labor, and with limited means, succeeded in creating an iron-clad navy that called forth the admiration of both sides. The Merrimac was sunk by the Federals at Norfolk, Va., and afterwards raised by the Confederates, razeed and converted into an iron-clad. The sides were armored with 4-inch plates, and over the deck a sloping iron roof was built of about the same thickness, affording cover to guns and gunners. The armament consisted of ten 8- and 9-inch Dahlgrens, and two 74-inch rifles, mounted in ports cut in the sloping roof. The Atlanta was converted from an iron-hulled steamer. To carry the additional weight, due to the armor and guns, her displacement was increased by securing logs along the side, and plating over them with iron. The battery was carried in a central citadel, sides sloping at 30°, covered with 2 layers of 2-inch iron plates 7 inches wide, the inner layer horizontal, the outer vertical. VOL. IV.-7

The Tennessee was a somewhat similar vessel, built of wood. The armor on the side of the casemate was in three thicknesses of 2-inch plate, the outer thickness reducing to one inch at the ends.

The iron-clad fleet of England was increased under Sir E. J. Reed by the addition of vessels embodying the principles of the Bellerophon. In the Sultan guns were mounted in an upper deck battery over the after end of the citadel instead of at the stern, while the bow-guns were unprotected. In the Audacious class the heavy guns were mounted in two tiers in a central battery. In the Alexandra the lower battery tier is much longer, and the forward part is constructed with indented ports armed with 18-ton guns. In the Temeraire, the last central-battery ship so far constructed for the British navy, in order to obtain an allround fire, barbette towers were placed forward and aft on the upper deck, in which guns were mounted on the disappearing system. In the Shannon the water-line is protected by a belt extending to within 60 feet of the stern, beyond which an under-water protected deck is worked. This deck was suggested by Mr. Barnaby. The guns are not protected except from forward. În the Nelson and Northampton another step was taken, leaving the after end unprotected, and working an armor deck as at the forward end of the Shannon. This step was an important one, and marks the beginning of a disposition of armor which is still adhered to by the English.

In 1864 two small monitors building for the Confederate States were seized and subsequently purchased by the British government. Their trial led to the construction of the ships Royal Sovereign and Prince Albert, each with four turrets. Capt. Coles, who advocated the turret system as against Sir E. J. Reed's broadside ships, was vigorously supported by the press, and finally it was decided to build the Monarch, an armored sea-going ship, carrying four 20-ton guns in two turrets. Capt. Coles, protesting against this ship being considered as embodying his ideas, was given authority to construct the Captain, a full-rigged, doubleturreted, sea-going armored ship. When completed she floated 2 feet deeper than designed, and this limited free-board, with a great spread of canvas, led to her being capsized. This accident caused the admiralty to abandon the construction of fully rigged seagoing turret ships. The great advantages of the turret were, however, recognized, and the system adopted for mastless ships. The first turret ships had less freeboard than the American monitors, thus diminishing the weight of the armor. An armored breastwork protected the turning-gear of the turrets, the base of the funnel, and the hatchways. The Glatton, Cyclops, Gorgon, Hecate, and Hydra for the admiralty, and the Cerebus, Magdala, and Abyssinia for the colonies, of the above type, were laid down in 1866.

The Hotspur, an iron-clad ram, laid down the same year, originally had a single large gun mounted in a fixed oval turret, as it was feared that the shock of ramming would injure a movable turret. She has since been fitted with a revolving turret, carrying two guns. The Rupert, constructed somewhat later, is a ram with a breastwork of larger dimensions than the Hotspur.

Looking to battle-ships of the first class the admiralty ordered the preparation of designs for an armored, mastless, sea-going turret vessel, and in April, 1869, the Devastation was begun. When, in 1870, the Cap