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to obtain a license from the proper authority. In general law a license is simply a permit revocable by the authority issuing it, and it dies with the death of either party; it does not carry any interest, and cannot be assigned.

In the United States the national authority is paramount to that of any State; hence a State license to do anything which violates the law of the nation is null and void. License fees imposed by federal authority as a tax for revenue only cannot interfere with anything allowed or prohibited under State laws. The federal license tax, which liquor-dealers are required to pay, does not warrant the sale of liquors in any State, where, as in Maine, Iowa, and Kansas, such sale is forbidden by the State law, or in any city within the bounds of such State. It is not a permit to do business, but a governmental tax upon such business if carried on.

The Plymouth Colony enacted its first license law in 1636; other laws followed in 1646, 1661, 1695, 1698, and 1710. The many acts, each adding some new restriction, indicate the frequency with which the liquor traffic came under consideration. After the adoption of the State constitution, the provisions of existing laws were codified, and with additional provisions were included in the general act of 1787, which has remained the law substantially until within about forty years.

The Continental Congress took account of this question in 1774, and in the first Congress of the United States the liquor traffic was the subject of the second bill it passed, which bears date July 4, 1789. The most elaborate measure was passed March 3, 1791, and May 8, 1792, in the second Congress, a law was enacted licensing distilleries, providing penalties for working stills without a license, and that the secretary of the treasury should have power to regulate the marks to be set upon casks and packages containing distilled spirits, without which they were liable to seizure. An act passed June 5, 1784, in the third Congress, entitled "An act laying duties on licenses for selling wines and foreign-distilled spirituous liquors by retail, contained this provision: That no license shall be granted to any person to sell wines or foreign-distilled spirituous liquors who is prohibited to sell the same by the laws of any State.'

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License laws obtain in most of the States, varying but little from each other. They are all for the most part grounded upon the laws of Massachusetts and New York, the States which have perhaps had the most to do with license legislation. The law in Tennessee is noteworthy for its provision forbidding any person to sell or tipple any intoxicating beverage within four miles of an incorporated institution of learning." That of Florida for a section requiring every application for license to sell liquors, wine, or beer to be signed by a majority of the registered voters in such election district. which said signing shall be in the presence of at least two credible witnesses. Local option, or the right of towns, villages, or counties to prohibit the traffic within their borders, obtains in Maryland, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Texas, and Arkansas; and prohibition by statutory law in New Hampshire and Vermont, and by constitutional provisions in Maine, Iowa, and

Kansas.

High license, differing in degree only, but not in kind, from the general licensing system, is receiving much attention in many parts of the country. Highlicense laws were passed in Nebraska in 1881 and in Illinois in 1883.

VOL. IV.-15

Certain general features are found in all license laws, viz.: (1) that licenses are to be issued only to proper persons; (2) that each one shall contain conditions of a restrictive character; (3) that special regulations as to the hours of opening and closing shall be enforced; (4) that all licensed places shall be kept under vigilant control; (5) that all violations shall be punished; and (6) that in granting any and all licenses the requirements of the neighborhood shall be duly considered. In international law its most common use is to permit the pursuit of trade interdicted during war. permits are given usually by the sovereign authority of any country, but in time of actual conflict may be issued by military or naval officers in command of any given territory. It is of the nature of a special contract, and must be limited to the individual receiving, and for the purposes named, unless otherwise ordered and expressly stipulated in the license.

Such

In ecclesiastical law a license is a permit from the proper authority, which may be church, council, conference, or individual official, to preach, to administer ordinances, or to conduct religious services. The source of the authority, as well as the scope of the power committed, will vary with the tenets and practices of the various branches of the Christian church. In some instances the territory within which gifts may be exercised is no less prominent or important than the things specified which may be lawful for the licensee to do. (A. G. L.)

LIDDELL, HENRY GEORGE, an English clergyman, was born at Easingham, Durham, in 1811. He was educated at Christ Church, Oxford, graduating in 1833, and becoming tutor in the college. He was afterwards head-master of Westminster School, and domestic chaplain to Prince Albert. In 1855 he was made dean of Christ Church, and in 1870 vice-chancellor of the University of Oxford. He is best known by the valuable Greek Lexicon (1843; 6th ed., 1869) which he prepared in connection with Rev. Robert Scott, and by his History of Rome (1855), which has passed through many editions.

LİDDON, HENRY PARRY, an English clergyman, was born in 1830. He was educated at Christ Church, Oxford, where he graduated in 1850. Having taken orders he was vice-principal of the theological school at Cuddesden, 1854-59. In 1864 he was appointed prebendary in Salisbury Cathedral, in 1866 Bampton lecturer, and in 1870 a canon of St. Paul's, London. He was also made professor of exegesis at Oxford. He is an earnest defender and expounder of High-Church doctrine. He has published Lenten Sermons (1858); The Divinity of our Lord (1867); Some Words for God (1869).

LIE, JONAS LAURITZ EDEMIL, a Norwegian novelist, was born at Eker, near Drammen, in 1833, and spent his youth in Tromsö, the life and scenery of which he has well depicted in his works. Among these are Den Fremsynte; Billeder fra Nordland (1870); Adam Schrader (1879); Livsslaven (1883); En Malström (1884). Some of these have been translated into English.

p. 573 Am. ed. (p. 570

LIFE-SAVING SERVICE, U. S. This is an organization, under the U. S. Treasury DeSeeVol. XIV.partment, for the succor or rescue of seafarers subjected to shipwreck upon the sea Edin. ed.). and lake coasts of the United States. With the exception of a small Danish establishment upon the coast of Jutland it is the only governmental institution of the kind in the world, aii others being founded and carried on by private socie

ties. It is likewise distinguished by the magnitude of the scale on which it is cast-its programme including all points of danger on ten thousand miles of rough coast; and by the extraordinary success which has attended its efforts to save life and property upon occasions of marine disaster.

certain death. Hence, nearly two hundred years of ghastly and almost unmitigated fatality.

The first organized effort to rescue or to shelter shipwrecked mariners was made by the Massachusetts Humane Society in 1789, when it began to erect huts at intervals along the shore, "for the succor of persons

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FIG. 1.-Life-car suspended on hawser with hauling lines attached ready for use. For the two centuries prior to its organization the service rendered upon the coast to distressed or imperilled seafarers was necessarily of the most extemporaneous and inadequate character. The pathways of shipping were confined for a long period solely to the Atlantic seaboard, and none in the world can be more fraught with peril to incoming vessels. The coast from Maine to Cape Cod is dense with submarine rocks and reefs; thence to North Carolina there is an almost unbroken stretch of shoals and bars; and it hardly needs the concomitants of impervious fogs, blinding snowstorms, and shattering gales and seas, to add to the danger of navigation. At a later period commerce had to encounter the perils of the lakes-swift-piling waters, winds of indescribable suddenness and fury, and shores with but few havens of refuge; but until within the present century the Atlantic coast was the main field of marine disaster, and the history of its beaches was mainly made up of a long succession of tragic shipwrecks. No official record of such disasters was kept until 1871, and tradition and legend, or at most brief report, alone preserve the story of this protracted and dread mortality. A few tales reach us from the colonial period of the annual losses of brigs and barkentines laden with colonists who perished without aid in sight of land. In later years, when the great influx from Europe had set in, the emigrants went down by the shipload annually-200 and 300 at a time. In many cases wretched companies of men, women, and children, were for days in the sight and often in the hearing of the spectators on the beach until their vessels were beaten to pieces by the waves, and all on board went down into the whelming sea. There were no adequate means or appliances for rescue. Whatever gallant and desperate attempts at succor could be made by the coast population were undertaken in the face of every obstacle. Such efforts were, of course, commonly without result. The ordinary boats available were totally unfitted to cope with the surf of a violent storm, and to venture out in them to the relief of an endangered ship's company would have involved

escaping from wrecked vessels on exposed and desolate parts of the coast of Massachusetts. In 1807 the first life-boat station was built by this society at Cohasset, and subsequently a number of others. Upon occasions of service the boats of these stations were under the disadvantage of being manned by volunteers, instead of trained and disciplined crews. Still they effected sufficient good to be publicly recognized, and to receive in several instances pecuniary support from the State of Massachusetts and from the general government. The sum of $5000, which had been appropriated in 1847 to enable the light-house keepers to render assistance to shipwrecked mariners, having been unused, was given in 1849 to the society. In 1855 Congress voted it the further sum of $10,000; in 1857 $10,000; and in 1870 $15,000.

The winter of 1846-47 was exceptionally severe and the loss of life from shipwreck proportionately heavy, especially on the coast of New Jersey. One huge emigrant ship after another, while making for the port of New York, was driven on the Jersey beaches and there remained until beaten to pieces by the fury of the the waves. On one of these vessels nearly 400 lives were lost; on two others, 300 each. The whole country was startled and roused to action by these appalling disasters, and the Hon. William A. Newell, of New Jersey, brought before Congress the condition of the seaboard of that State, and asked for means to procure appliances for the rescue of life, pledging that they should be faithfully used by the people on the coast. An appropriation was made of $10,000 for providing surf-boats, rockets, carronades, and other necessary apparatus for the better preservation of life and property from shipwreck on the coast of New Jersey lying between Sandy Hook and Little Egg Harbor," and with this money eight stations were built and equipped between the points specified. This action may be considered as the nucleus or germ of the service, which continued to grow by accretion. In 1849 the further appropriation of $20,000 was made by Congress, by which the work was pushed to the shores of Long

Island. Eight stations were bufft and equipped between Montauk Point and Coney Island, one on Fisher's Island, one at Eaton's Neck in Long Island Sound, and six additional on the New Jersey coast. In 1850 $20,000 more was appropriated. With a part of this sum additional stations were built on Long Island, and one at Watch Hill, R. I. Half of the appropriation was used in distributing Francis life-boats along the coasts of North and South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, and Texas. In 1853-54 $42,500 were appropriated. With this sum life-boats were placed at certain points on the coasts of the great lakes, fourteen new stations were built on the coast of New Jersey, and eleven on the coast of Long Island.

A prominent appliance for saving life from shipwrecks, the life-car (Fig. 1), belongs to this period, having been introduced about 1848. It may be described as a covered boat made of corrugated iron. The corruga tions of the metal make it retain its shape as a boat, without the aid of ribs or stays, thus securing its strength of build without increasing its weight. A hawser being stretched between the wreck and the shore, the car is suspended to it by iron bails, and is drawn back and forth above or on the water, bringing in at each trip a load of living persons. The top of the car is fitted with a hatch or lid, which is shut down upon the people making their transit, and a few perforations in the cover supply them with the necessary air. Six or seven persons,

heroism, and skill was intrusted the duty of using the appliances furnished in case of shipwreck. The result was that the stations and their appurtenances, as well as the life-boats scattered about the coasts, became dilapidated or were applied to private purposes; and that frequently, when wrecks occurred, no assistance could be given, as powder, mortar, cables, and the other equipments had been stolen. The loss of over 300 lives from the ship Powhatan, wrecked upon the New Jersey coast in 1854, at length again roused the attention of Congress to the general inefficiency, and an act was passed authorizing the renovation of the station equipments, the appointment of a superintendent for each of the two coasts of Long Island and New Jersey at a salary of $1500 per annum, a keeper for each station at a salary of $200 per annum, and a custodian for the respective life-boats. But little improvement resulted however. The superintendents

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grouped in a recum-
bent position, are ac-
commodated by the
contrivance at each
passage. It is re-
markable as the first device by which life could be
saved from a wreck without exposure or danger.,
It was first used at the wreck of the emigrant ship
Ayrshire on Squan Beach, New Jersey, near Point
Pleasant, when 200 persons were safely drawn ashore,
comprising all on board save one man, who was lost by
recklessly attempting to make the passage on the out-
This
side of the car, and was washed off into the sea.
is the only life ever lost by the operation of the life-car.
It will be readily understood that the life-saving
effort of those years was greatly hampered by the exist-
ing conditions. The stations were built and furnished
on the Long Island and New Jersey beaches, and the
life-boats distributed at various points upon the coast,
but no keepers were appointed or paid to take charge
of them. They were left to the care of the people
living on the coast, and to their uncertain good-will,

FIG. 2.-Self-righting and self-bailing English life-boat going out to a wreck in a heavy sea.

and keepers, chosen by village politicians, were persons who had worked for their party but who often knew nothing of handling boats or of the perils of the sea, and who troubled themselves little about them after appointment as before. For seventeen years affairs remained in this condition. In 1869 a marked advance was made by the efforts of the Hon. S. S. Cox. An amendment to an appropriation bill, moved by the Hon. Charles Haight, of New Jersey, providing for the employment of crews of regular surfmen at the stations, had been defeated, when Mr. Cox with great energy succeeded in getting a substitute adopted which supplied them to alternate stations. Although this measure was not enough to render life-saving endeavor efficient, it created an improvement, and was of great importance in preparing the way for the subsequent. manning of all the stations with crews.

The time had now come for a supreme effort. In the winter of 1870-71 several shipwrecks occurred, with great loss of life, which were evidently chargeable to the ill-condition of the boats and apparatus and to the remissness or incompetency of the employés. In February, 1871, Mr. Sumner L. Kimball took charge of the revenue marine service, to which the care of the few life-saving stations had always been allotted, and in view of these disasters made proper representations through the Department to Congress, which then appropriated $200,000 for the requirements of saving life from shipwreck on the coast, authorizing also the discretionary employment of crews at all the stations, though for only three months in the year. Mr. Kimball at once began operations by setting on foot a thorough investigation of the condition of the service. It was found that most of the stations were too far from each other and that the houses were much dilapidated, many being so far gone as to be worthless and the remainder in need of extensive repairs and enlargement. With but few exceptions they were in a filthy condition, and gave every evidence of neglect and misuse. The apparatus was rusty for want of care, and some of it ruined by the depredations of vermin and malicious persons. Many of the most necessary articles were wanting, and at no station was the outfit complete. At some of the stations, even where crews had been employed, such indispensable articles as powder, rockets, shot-lines, shovels, etc., were not to be found. At other stations not a portable article was left. Some of the keepers were too old for active service, others lived too far from their stations, and few of them were really competent for their positions. Politics had had more influence in their ap

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pointment than qualification for the duties required of them. Even in the selection of crews for the stations where they were employed, fitness was a secondary consideration. Upon this showing Mr. Kimball at once began the work of organizing the service. The old station-houses were repaired and enlarged; new ones were built so as to bring the stations within from 3 to 5 miles of each other. These houses were of simple but durable construction. They consisted of a large apartment, to contain life-boats, life-car, wagon, mortar, etc., and a kitchen and sleeping-rooms for the crew. Inefficient and unskilled keepers were discharged, and trained and courageous surfmen were appointed in their places. Each station was manned with a permanent crew of hardy, sober, skilled men who were organized, drilled, and regularly paid. The increased efficiency of the service consequent upon these measures is shown by the remarkable fact that 22 wrecks occurred that year on the New Jersey coast without the loss of a single life.

In 1872 an additional station was placed on the Rhode Island coast, and 9 stations were built on Cape Cod between Race and Monomoy Points. The entire service was now organized into three districts, the keepers and surfmen of each being under their several superintendents and all under the supervision of an inspector. Keepers and surfmen were also subjected to regular discipline and drill. Weekly reports were required from each keeper. The system of patrol was also established for the first time in any life-saving service, the surfmen being required to serve on watches as sentinels and to keep up night and day a patrol along the coast under their charge. Only one life was lost by shipwreck this year in the space guarded.

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Crew hauling out hand-cart partly loaded with apparatus. Surf-boat on its wagon to the right. Hawser, Lyle gun breeches buoy, box of cylindrical shot, faking-box, etc., to the left.

In 1873 an appropriation of $100,000 was given by Congress for the extension of the line of stations to the coasts of New Hampshire, Maine, Virginia, and North Carolina, and 22 new stations were built on these coasts. A commission was authorized by Congress to thoroughly examine the entire sea- and lakecoasts of the United States, and to report upon the number of additional stations required and the points at which they should be placed. The commission consisted of Mr. S. I. Kimball and Capts. John Faunce and J. H. Merriman of the revenue marine service, After a detailed examination into the wrecks and casualties on the coast for the ten years preceding, it recommended the experimental grouping of the stations into three classes: (1) Complete life-saving stations, so called, destined for all solitary coasts with flat beaches, fully equipped, and provided with resident crews; (2) Life-boat stations, severally in charge of a keeper only, with volunteer crews-the populous character of the localities contemplated promising to render this form of aid available-these stations to be located at points where the immediate depth of water would enable the easy launch of the heavy, self-righting, and self-bailing English life-boat; (3) Provisioned houses of refuge, each in custody of a keeper and his family, for the eastern coast of Florida, where wrecks, owing to the nature of the coast, drive so near the shore that escape from them is comparatively easy, and the main danger to the mariner is of dying of hunger and thirst after reaching the desolate land. These recommenda- intendent, who manages its affairs

Since that time the details of the steady expansion of the service, year by year, are best given in its annual reports. The number of stations is increasing, until the original plan of the general superintendent, which was once thought hopelessly impracticable, to surround all parts of the Atlantic and lake-coasts of the United States dangerous to navigation with a cordon of these posts of succor to imperilled seafarers, manned by skilled and disciplined surfmen, is almost fulfilled. In the scheme of the service the coast is divided into 12 districts. The whole is presided over by a general superintendent, aided by an assistant general superintendent, their head-quarters being in the treasury at Washington. There is an inspector of life-saving stations, and two superintendents of construction sta tioned at New York, who supervise all building and repairs and purchase equipments for new stations. An officer of the revenue marine acts as assistant

tions were adopted by Congress in an act which also created five additional districts, each with its superintendent, provided for the bestowal of two classes of medals of honor, and empowered the collection and tabulation by the service of statistics of disaster to shipping. The arrangement of the stations into classes as described still continues, except that the life-boat

FIG. 4.-The Lyle Gun.

inspector in each district, his function being to see that the stations are kept in proper condition and the crews well practised in the use of the life-saving apparatus. Each district has a superunder the gen

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stations have nearly all dispensed with the volunteer system in favor of regular crews, experience having shown the wisdom of maintaining a steady personnel for all occasions of service.

In 1874-75 there were 22 stations added, and in 1875-76 6 were built on the Maryland and Virginia coasts: 35 were added during 1876-77, and in 1877-78 4 were built and nearly all the old ones repaired. In that year the service was formally reorganized by Congress and separated from the revenue marine, of which it had hitherto formed a part. Mr. Sumner I. Kimball was nominated general superintendent by the President and unanimously confirmed by the Senate, The annual term of service of the crews, which had heretofore been from December until March on the Atlantic coast, was extended from September to May, and on the lakes from the opening to the close of navigation: the compensation of the keepers was doubled, and provision made for the payment of the volunteer crews who manned the life-boats on the lakes. Thirty-seven new stations wore also ordered to be built, and a new district was created on the Gulf

coast.

cral direction of the chief of the service and is responsible for its efficiency. The salaries of these officers range from $1500 to $1800 per annum. The stations are severally in the charge of a keeper, who is required to be an expert in boat-craft, the art of surfing, and all wreck operations. He is by law an inspector of customs, having power over all stranded property and against smugglers. Under his command is a crew of seven men, composed of the ablest surfien that can be procured. Upon occasions of service at wrecks the keeper is charged with the dangerous and difficult post of steersman. The pay of the keeper is $700 per annum. The crew receive severally $50 per month. The duties of these men are mainly divided between their perilous service in effecting res cues on occasions of shipwreck and maintaining a nightly patrol of the beaches, on the lookout for endangered shipping. Apart from the work of rescue the latter is their severest, as it is their most constant task, the watch being held through all the hours of darkness, on desolate coasts and in all varieties of weather. This patrol is a peculiar feature of the American service, and has greatly contributed to its

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