American Reformed Church and effected its independence from the Church of Holland. Compelled to leave the city of New York on its occupation by the British, he preached at Albany and afterward at Kingston and Poughkeepsie. He returned in 1783, and from 1795 to 1797 he was also professor of divinity in a seminary at Belford, L. I. In 1807 he was appointed president and professor of theology in Queen's College, Brunswick, N. J., and he removed to this eity in 1810. Here he died, Jan. 20, 1825. His Life was published by Rev. A. Gunn (1829).

LIVINGSTON, PHILIP (1716-1778), an American statesman, was born at Albany, N. Y., Jan. 15, 1716, being a grandson of Robert Livingston, the founder of the Livingston family in America. He graduated at Yale College in 1737, became a merchant in New York city, and in 1758 was elected to the legislature. In 1768 he was speaker of the house, but in 1769 he was unseated by the Tory majority. In 1774 he became a member of the Continental Congress, in which he signed the Declaration of Independence in 1776. He died at York, Pa., June 12, 1778. He had been liberal to colleges, and during the Revolutionary war sold part of his property to sustain the public credit.

LIVINGSTON, WILLIAM (1723-1790), an American statesman, was born at Albany, N. Y., Nov. 30, 1723. He graduated at Yale College in 1741 and became an eminent lawyer. With William Smith, Jr., he published the first Digest of the Colony Laws (1752). In 1758 he was elected to the New York assembly, but in 1773 he built a house called Liberty Hall at Elizabethtown, N. J., and there spent the remainder of his life. He was a delegate to the first Continental Congress from New Jersey, and in 1776 was made governor. Several expeditions were sent by the British from New York to capture that "Don Quixote of the Jerseys," but he always made his escape. In 1787 he was a delegate to the convention to frame the constitution. He died at Elizabethtown, N. J., July 25, 1790. His publications were chiefly political and miscellaneous tracts.

LOBBY. The corridors and antechambers of the British houses of Parliament and of the Congress of the United States have always been spoken of as the lobbies. In this country, soon after the capitol rose at Washington, the word "lobby was more specifically applied to the private corridor in the rear of the Senate and House of Representatives, to which only members of the two bodies or properly accredited friends of theirs had access. It was a gratifying courtesy that was extended by legislators with moderation and rarely abused in the early days of the nation's history. But it soon came about that privileges of this character were eagerly sought by men who used them for the purpose of influencing legislation. The privilege of the lobby" developed into a right that was worth money to the person who granted it as well as to the beneficiary. Even before the days of open corruption the lobby and the persons who frequented it came to be called "the third house of Congress." Very soon thereafter the name of the place where these hired agents of unknown principals congregated had been fastened upon the individuals themselves. The term "lobbyist" became a part of the language, though formed in defiance of generally recognized rules. The date of the advent of the word is disputed by lexicographers. In the early days of the lobby (and we now refer to the people who use it unworthily) ex-members of the Senate or House were the most

available material for intermediaries between those who wanted legislation and those who had power to grant it. Under the rules they had the right of entrance to the floors of the Senate chamber or the House of Representatives, and could talk with members in their seats or in the cloak-rooms. Covertly, as personal friends, or frankly, as paid counsel for a subsidy scheme or a railroad land grant, they could urge their measures upon the members in divers and variou ways.

The professional lobbyist is of later development. He rarely appeared at the capitol. If he did it was in the privacy of a committee room, to which, likely as not, he carried a key and could conduct and entertain his guests. He rarely appeared openly before a committee. He preferred to operate upon the members of a committee separately. Much ingenuity was exercised in winning the confidence of the man who was to be corrupted and morally destroyed. The favorite plan was to get the desired bill introduced by a member who was partially in the secret of its meaning, and then to secure its prompt reference to the desired committee without reading (except by its title, generally harmless in sound). The next move was to secure its consideration and "thorough investigation" by a subcommittee of one or three members of the general committee. If the scheme involved a large amount of money, land, or vested interests, a sub-committee of three was considered preferable. Its report would carry more weight and would influence the weak members of the main committee. It was desirable, of course, for the lobbyist to control the chairman of the House or Senate committee. If he did, he could name the members that would form the sub-committee. If he could not establish such relations, he might employ the clerk of the committee and attain his control of the appointing power in that way. Cases have been known in which the names of such a sub-committee were altered by the clerk of a committee to meet the wishes of the master whom he served. The records of the clerk are the official proofs of selection. From them there is little risk of appeal.

The chief of a gang of lobbyists must not make a single error, as he is liable to prompt exposure. He must be a keen and accurate judge of humanity. He must know what men can be secured through their friends. Many members of Congress leave home with the purest intentions and are daily sold and delivered by personal friends whom they do not suspect of turpitude. A good dinner or a case of wine will capture others whom money would not purchase. It is humiliating to confess, however, that the larger num ber of corrupt lawmakers are bought with cash. Some members have preferred to accept such sums as loans," or in the shape of money advanced on notes without date or with some vitiating clause,

The story of the achievements of the lobby in the Congress of the United States would make a terrible narrative. An examination of the development of an individual will enable us to study the growth of the type. For a quarter of a century there lived at Washington a refined and cultivated gentleman who was proud of the title of "King of the Lobby.' He even inscribed himself on one occasion "Vestibuli Rex. He codified the rules of the lobby. He reduced the various methods of passing bills through Congress, good, bad, or indifferent, to a fine art. He needed only to be told exactly what legislation was desired. From that hour he became the directing genius of the

enterprise that underlaid the projected bill. He advised as to what points might be urged, what asked only for the purpose of subsequent concession or relinquishment. It pleased a committee, he often said, to believe that it amends a bill. When this point had been reached he drew the bill himself. Then he decided in which house of Congress it should originate. Next the roll of that particular body was carefully scrutinized. It was marvellous how much he knew about every man on the floor. He divined each man's secret ambition, and appeared to have as a sole object in life the attainment of it by the man he cultivated. It was his boast that he never had failed to secure a vote that he once undertook to get. Many men he never approached.

His delight was a Congress in which the balance of power was narrow, so that by artfully engrafting on his bill some political character, or attributes, he could secure a strict party vote. Then he knew exactly how many votes it would be necessary to buy. He aimed at success certain and unequivocal. A remarkable fact about nearly all of his many transactions was that he not only secured their passage but clinched them with the executive approval of Presidents far above even the suspicion of corruption. It is a sad and dreadful picture, this man's life, and yet he had the instincts of a scholar and the breeding of a gentleman. Two great exposures of official corruption stand out as landmarks in the history of the lobby. They have gone into history as "The Credit Mobilier" and "The Pacific Mail Steamship Company Subsidy." The Credit Mobilier was a combination of men who undertook to build the first transcontinental railway to the Pacific Ocean. Charles Francis Adams, Jr., of Boston, has written its history fully and mercilessly. When the exposure came it relegated several prominent statesmen to obscurity and the grave. The effect was to compel comparative honesty. Corruption was made very odious. The nation had a revulsion of feeling, and a spasmodic epidemic of integrity spread every where. So the public believed and members of Congress declared. Yet at that very time the bill to pay the Pacific Mail Steamship Company a subsidy of $500,000 annually was quietly being worked through both houses of Congress. As subsequent investigation showed, it cost the Pacific Mail Steamship Company $600,000 to get that subsidy granted.

There is yet another type of lobbyist. He is a hired attorney at the national and State capitals to prevent the introduction, consideration, or enactment of measures prejudicial to the great corporation or the vested interest that employs and pays him. The necessity for such a person opens up another painful phase of this unpleasant subject, because it is a fact of susceptible demonstration that many bills are introduced for the sole purpose of compelling their exinction by purchase. This branch of the general topic would more properly belong under the title of Black-mail." (J. C.)

LOBSTER, a name given to the crustacean genus Homarus and also to some species of diverse genera, such as Palinurus. The common lobster is allied to the fresh-water crayfish, from which it differs in size and in several anatomical points. It is a member of the decapod, or ten-footed crustacea, the anterior pair of feet being converted into enormous claws. These open and shut like strong pincers, one of them being provided with many sharp tooth-like serrations, the other with a few blunt tubercles. It has a narrow and

The eyes are

spiny rostrum and very long antennæ. borne on movable peduncles. The abdomen is composed of seven segments, with six pairs of natatory appendages beneath. This forms the principal organ of locomotion. By its being suddenly bent downward and under the animal is driven backward with great velocity. The shell is olive or blackish-green in color, and has the peculiarity that it becomes red under the action of boiling water. Respiration is branchial, there being 19 branchia on each side. The stomach has in its pyloric region 3 solid movable pieces of chitine, called the lady," from a fancied resem blance to a lady sitting. They are probably masticating teeth. The greenish glandular organ, with fat cells, popularly called "tom alley," is the liver. There are three well-determined species of Homarus, known as H. vulgaris, the Norway lobster, H. americana, nearly related to the preceding, and H. capensis, a smaller species of the Cape of Good Hope. The American species, when adult, is from 1 to 2 feet long and weighs from 2 to 15 pounds. It is a voracious animal and feeds on any kind of animal food, either fresh or decaying. It lives on rocky, gravelly, and sandy bottoms, from low water to 20 or 30 fathoms, but probably not much deeper, and has a migratory habit, moving rapidly in considerable numbers, the largest and strongest in front, the weakest in the rear. Reaching good feeding-grounds they scatter and devour the clams, mussels, and other food-animals found there. The lobster lays from 2000 to 12,000 eggs, of which probably 1000 are hatched. The eggs are carried under the abdomen, and the young remain there for many days, when they drop off to shift for themselves. The breeding period varies very much from south to north. South of Cape Cod it lasts from April 1 till late in June. In the Bay of Fundy it extends from midsummer to September. The young lobster lives a very different life from the adult. At first it is not more than one-third of an inch long, with scarcely any resemblance to the lobster. It swims freely in this state. With every change of skin it grows more lobster-like, and when a little over one-half inch long it looks like a little lobster, yet still swims freely by aid of long swimming branches to the legs. After it has grown a few inches long the growth becomes very slow. It probably moults but once a year, with but a moderate growth at each change. Large-sized lobsters seem to change their shells yet more seldom. They very readily part with their large claws when caught by them, or when suddenly alarmed. The lost claws are replaced by new ones.

The lobster has long been a favorite article of food, and millions are taken yearly. Norway is the principal source of the European supply. The fishing here was begun by the Dutch in the seventeenth century, the natives previously not esteeming the lobster as food. The average annual exportation from this region from 1861 to 1870 was 1,463,000. From 1871 to 1880 about 1,000,000. In 1880 it was 991,000. This indicates a decline in the catch, which is undoubtedly due to over fishing, especially during the breeding season. Restrictive measures have recently been adopted. In Europe the rock lobster (Palinurus vulgaris) is nearly as much sought as an article of food as the common lobster. It differs from the latter in the absence of pincers and in other particulars. On the American coast the lobster-fishing is an important industry. In Long Island Sound it begins about April 1, and continues till late in autumn, though the principal catch

See Vol.XIV. p. 750 Am.

is in May and June. On the coast of Maine and Northern Massachusetts, whence the winter supply comes, the fishery continues nearly all the year round. In Norway the lobsters were formerly caught with wooden tongs, but the American lobster-pot is now everywhere used. This consists of a basket with a funnel-shaped end, the funnel leading downward to a hole by which the lobster can enter, but from which its claws prevent it from escaping. It is baited with fish of little value, sunk by stones, and its place marked by a float. The catch on the American coast cannot be definitely given, though it is claimed that nearly a million lobsters are annually sold in Boston. The limit of salable size in Massachusetts is fixed by law at 10 inches. A very large trade in canned lobsters has grown up on the North American coast, there being a large exportation trade from the Portland canneries. The catch for this purpose is so enormous that it is apprehended that the supply will soon be se. riously diminished unless some restriction be adopted. A few years ago lobsters of 10 to 20 pounds weight were not uncommon. Now the average weight is from 3 to 6 pounds. On the coasts of Nova Scotia and New Brunswick lobsters exist so abundantly that on certain occasions they have been used freely as manure. In 1873 more than 4,000,000 one-pound cans were exported from British America; there being put up in Nova Scotia in that year 3,462,298 cans, and in New Brunswick 1,387,700 cans. More recently overfishing seems to be everywhere diminishing the catch. (C. M.) LOCK. The pre-eminence which America has achieved in the art of lock-making necessitates a short description of the deed. p. 744 velopment of the industry in this country. Edin. ed.). The ingenuity of American mechanics has been tested to an extraordinary degree, both in the picking of the most skilfully devised locks of English manufacture and in the making of locks that have hitherto proved absolutely unpickable, while the general application of machinery to lockmaking has given a neatness and precision to the parts of the American lock which are nowhere else approached. In the primitive period of this country the lock was unknown as an American institution. hundred years ago it was of the simplest construction, and two or three sufficed for all the purposes of a household. Now every door and drawer must have its lock, so that hundreds are used where one was formerly employed, while the skill of burglars has stimulated the ingenuity of mechanics to devise locks that shall absolutely defy their arts. The invention of the tumbler lock by Barron in 1778, of the more complex Bramah lock in 1788, and of the Chubb's lock in 1818 stimulated American inventors, and many efforts to devise an unpickable lock were made in this country. Success was first approached by Dr. Andrews, of Perth Amboy, N. J., who in 1841 invented a permutation lock, in which a number of rings attached to the key permitted an endless variety of combinations. In this lock, when the bolt was turned, the lock could not be moved except with exactly the same combination of the key. The lock had tumblers and a detector, an ingenious English device, which prevented the tumbler from releasing the bolt if lifted too high. This lock was greatly admired, but was picked by Mr. Newell, of New York. In 1843 a lock with two sets of tumblers was produced. The inventor offered $500 to any one who could pick this. It was picked by Pettitt and

Hall, of Boston, by the smoke process. This is burglar's device, in which a smoky flame is blown into the key-hole, leaving a deposit of lampblack on the tumblers. Then a key is introduced, and after its removal a strong light is thrown in by a reflector, by which the key-marks on the tumblers are shown. Thus the proper shape of key is indicated. The next effort was to keep the interior from view by making the key-hole small, and interposing a curtain. The London World's Fair of 1851 brought this lock prob lem into special prominence. The celebrated Bramak lock, which had long defied pickers with a standing offer of 200 guineas, was readily picked by Mr. Hobbs, of Boston, after he had similarly opened a Chubb's lock. He employed what is known as the tentative process, using the sense of feeling to make his way through the difficulties of the lock. In his turn he offered the Parautoptic lock, the invention of Mr. Pyes, its distinctive feature being the use of eccentric rings and a curtain. It defied the efforts of English locksmiths, but in its turn yielded in 1855 to American ingenuity, being picked by Linus Yale, Jr., of Philadelphia. In 1843 Linus Yale, Sr., had invented a lock which was deemed absolutely unpickable until picked by his son. There was by this time a furor on the subject of locks. The younger Yale had declared that any lock using a key of a winged form, which rubs an impression on tumblers, can be picked. To obviate this he invented a lock in 1851 which he called the "magic lock," and which has never been picked. In this extraordinary invention the key and its bits, though apparently of one piece, are separable. On inserting the key into the lock the bits are taken off by a pin. The key being turned puts in motion a set of wheels which carry off the bits to a remote part of the lock, out of the reach of picking tools, where they act upon the tumblers, arranging them for the drawing of the bolt. Meanwhile the wheels close up the key-hole solidly. Afterwards the bits return and rejoin the keyhandle. Another unpickable lock of American manufacture is the Hall rotary-combination lock. This absolutely dispenses with a key, and is opened by turning a knob one way and then the other certain distances, according to a set of numbers in the mind of the devised is that of Denison, invented in 1852. This has a very narrow key-hole, and is locked by turning a handle, but needs a key to open it. It is not much in use, an improved Chubb's lock being the favorite in England. The puzzle, letter, and dial-locks are now almost out of date. These could only be opened by setting a number of rings to a certain combination of letters. Hobbs proved that they could all be picked, while the difficulty of handling them, and the danger of forgetting the combination, reduced their popularity. In the year 1831 the time-lock, or a lock operated by clock-work, was introduced by Mr. Rutherford, of Jedburgh. Scotland. In this a revolving circular stopplate holds the bolt until it has moved so far that a notch in its rim permits the bolt to pass. It may be made to rotate quickly or slowly, so that the lock can be set to open at a definite time. This original timelock has been very greatly improved upon by the Yale time-lock now in use. Since 1851 the American locks have sustained the reputation then gained. Mr. Denison, the celebrated London lock-maker, says that they are "vastly superior to anything we have ever seen made in England, and on the whole the United States are far ahead of us in the manufacture of both good

and cheap locks." The parts of American locks, except those that can be cast, are now made by machinery, and are as exact as the similar parts of a watch, while the cast parts are the perfection of small castings. American lock-hardware is everywhere esteemed abroad, the ordinary Yale lock in particular being very widely used. The principal factories are in New England and the Middle States. (C. M.) LOCKE, DAVID Ross, an American humorist, was born at Vestal, Broome co., N. Y., Sept. 20, 1833. He became a printer and was connected with various newspapers in Ohio. While editor of the Findley Jeffersonian in 1860 he began to insert political letters ander the name of "Petroleum Vesuvius Nasby,' whose pungent satire of secession gave them wide currency. In 1865 Mr. Locke became editor of the Toledo Blade, in which he satirized President Johnson's methods of reconstructing the Southern States. His Nasty Letters were gathered into a single volume in 1869, and he afterwards published The Morals of Abou ben Adhem (1875). He died Feb. 15, 1888. LOCK HAVEN, a city of Pennsylvania, countyseat of Clinton county, is handsomely situated on the S. bank of the West Branch of the Susquehanna, 25 miles W. S. W. of Williamsport. It is on the Philadelphia and Erie Railroad at the junction of the Bald Eagle Valley branch of the Pennsylvania Railroad, and on the West Branch Canal. It stands in a beautiful mountain-valley. The manufacture and shipment of pine and other lumber is the chief business interest. It has churches of all the leading denominations, 2 national banks, several newspapers, excellent public and private schools, a State normal school, good hotels, gas-works, large foundries and tanneries, several machine-shops and planing-mills, and extensive saw-mills, most of the power being from steam. Population in 1880, 5845; in 1890, 7350.

LOCKPORT, a city of New York, county-seat of Niagara county, is on the Erie Canal, on the New York Central Railroad at the junction of a branch, and also on a branch of the Erie Railroad, 25 miles N. N. E. of Buffalo. The 10 massive locks of the canal, which here makes a descent of 66 feet, give name to the town. The canal affords great water-power, which is utilized in a large number of mills and factories, including flour- and lumber-mills, machine-shops, foundries, cotton- and woollen-mills, and other establishments, some of which are of great extent. The canal itself here passes through a deep cut several miles in length, excavated in the solid rock. Lockport has many churches, excellent public schools, 3 national and 3 other banks, a female seminary, and 2 daily and 5 weekly newspapers. Large quantities of Niagara limestone and sandstone are here quarried for building purposes. The town has Holly waterworks and the Holly system of distributing heat by means of steam. Population in 1870, 12,426; in 1880, 13,522; in 1890, 16,603.

LOCKYER, JOSEPH NORMAN, an English astronomer, was born at Rugby, May 17, 1836. He was educated partly on the continent and entered the British War Office in 1857. In 1872 he was transferred to the science and art department, which he had assisted in establishing. In 1860, on account of his labors in astronomy, he had been made a fellow of the Royal Astronomical Society, and in 1869 was elected to the Royal Society. He was chief of the expedition sent to Sicily in 1870 to observe the solar eclipse, and again of that to India in 1871. Among his works are

Studies in Spectrum Analysis (1878); Star Gazing, Past and Present (1878); Chemistry of the Sun (1887); The Meteoric Hypothesis (1890). The last work explains the formation of suns through meteoric aggregation. In 1874 he became editor of Nature. LOCUST, ROCKY MOUNTAIN (Caloptenus spretus, Thos.).—This insect, also known as the "Western grasshopper," is the most destructive of the migratory locusts of the United States. It is a western species, never crossing to the east of the Mississippi Valley, and its history prior to the thick settlement of the trans-Mississip

pi country is difficult to trace. Injuries are recorded from time to time, from 1818 down

to 1864, when Rocky Mountain Locust (Caloptenus the damage spretus). from swarms in the North-west, and in Kansas, Nebraska, and Northwestern Texas, was sufficiently great to attract national attention. From 1873 to 1876 disastrous swarms swept over all the more thickly settled portions of the Mississippi Valley west of the 94th meridian, and the loss in 1874 alone was estimated at $50,000,000. In 1875. and, notably, in 1876, the damage was enormous, and so many thousands of families were impoverished, even to starvation, in Kansas, Colorado, and Nebraska, as to call for aid in food and clothing from the whole country. Since that year there has been no general invasion. During these years extended observations were made upon the species, and many important facts and discoveries were published, especially in the Reports (7, 8, 9) of the State Entomologist of Missouri. In March, 1877, the U. S. Entomological Commission was created, by act of Congress, for the purpose of studying the pest and the best means of controlling it. The first circular of the commission was issued in March, 1877. This was followed by other circulars, and, in the summer of 1878, by its First Report (750 pp.), which with the Second Report (1880), a volume of nearly the same size, makes an encyclopædia of all that is worth knowing in regard to the insect.

The territory overrun by this locust is divisible into three regions. The first of these, called the "permanent region," embraces the native breeding-grounds, where the insect is always found in greater or less abundance. It includes a small strip of Eastern Oregon and Southern Idaho, the north-western corner of Utah, the north-western portion of Colorado, the southern and eastern portions of Wyoming, nearly the whole of Montana excluding a western strip, and extends on up into the British Possessions as far as parallel 54° N. The "sub-permanent region" is that which the species frequently invades and in which it can perpetuate itself for several years, but from which it eventually disappears. It includes North-western Colorado, Western Nebraska, and nearly all of Dakota, extending also up into the British Possessions, including the western portion of Manitoba. The temporary region" enbraces that which is only periodically visited and from which the species generally disappears within a year; the extreme northern portion partaking more of a subpermanent character. It includes Nevada, Utah, Northern Arizona and New Mexico, Idaho, the remainder of Wyoming, Colorado, and Montana, and Texas, Indian Territory, Kansas, Western Missouri, Ne