there is "glorious confusion of the subject of the social organization prevailing in what is conveniently but loosely lumped together as totemic society."

THE PHRATRY OR MOIETY

The next larger division than the clan is the phratry. Moiety is a better term when the tribe is divided into two subdivisions. These groups are far less common than the clans. Marriage is usually forbidden between members of the same moiety. There is a feeling of brotherhood between the members of clans associated together into a phratry or moiety. The functions of this division are even more difficult to define than in the case of the clan. In America, at least, reciprocal service at funerals and rivalry between the two moieties are the most common features. In Melanesia there is often actual hostility between the two units. There is seldom any political function in this division.

The Omaha camping circle represents the spatial grouping of the social units, a living picture of the organization of the tribe. During a buffalo hunt the six clans (more properly called gentes, since descent was in the male line) were arranged in a semicircle to the south of an imaginary line running east and west, these six gentes forming a moiety. To the north of the line another group of six gentes, forming the second moiety, completed the circle."

Rivers thinks that the dual organization, two moieties, represents the earliest type of social organization, and he bases one of his theories upon this assumption. The dual system is not by any means world-wide in distribution. It is almost entirely absent from Africa and is not found among many American and Asiatic tribes. Rivers

suggests that the moiety organization was the sole source of the classificatory system of relationship terms. As this method of nomenclature is found over a great part of the world, it must be inferred, if we accept this theory, that the two-class system was once far more widely distributed than at the present time. There is no good reason to think that this is true. His theory seems to fit the data from Australia and Melanesia, but it does not appear to hold for the rest of the world.

THE TRIBE AND CONFEDERACY

The tribal unit comes next. Here, again, the attempt at definition is difficult, as there are the greatest differences in the character of tribes. We find that a common dialect, common customs, a more or less definite territory, and some form of government, are usually present. Tribes may be made up of village communities with no divisions into clans or moieties; they may have clans and no moieties, or moieties and no clans; or they may have both moieties and clans. There can be neither a definite rule nor a single line of evolution regarding these features. Tribal consciousness may be strong or weak. Hunting communities require little organization, but in agricultural centers some form of tribal solidarity is important and is usually present.

There is often the sharpest demarcation between the "We" group and the "Others" group, with a tribal unity carrying with it the corollary of hatred towards all outsiders. Ethnocentrism is a common spirit in tribal communities. The bond of kinship connecting all members of a clan or of a moiety is lacking in the tribe, but the psychical bond connecting all the members may be very strong. This is a special feature of early society, and is

in contrast with the absence of this bond in modern states. Patriotism is almost the only common psychical feature felt in modern society, and everyone knows how difficult this was to arouse in this country, even in the crisis of the late War. Communal singing, mass meetings, "drives," were artificial means taken to bring it into action. "Block parties" have been devised by the social worker to stimulate a communal feeling of responsibility and increase the social solidarity of a group. College loyalty, and local loyalty,—which is so strongly developed in the Western States, are both smaller manifestations of the same idea. Often our loyalties are far too provincial and aberrant.

The ethnocentrism of the savage may sometimes make itself felt within a group larger than the tribe, the confederacy. This is uncommon, however. A loose and informal alliance to meet some specific danger may bring about a union of tribes. It is very seldom that a definite compact is found among primitive peoples. The famous Iroquois Confederacy is one of the exceptions. This was one of the most amazing examples of a representative form of government ever evolved by uncivilized man. It has actually been in operation for over three centuries, beginning toward the last quarter of the sixteenth century and still existing to some slight extent. This will be referred to again.

ASSOCIATIONS

Up to this point social groups based either upon the idea of kindred or on that of locality have been described. There are associations among primitive peoples, where the cleavage is along other lines. The different groups may be made upon the basis of sex, of age, or of some other

criteria. The segregation of the uninitiated from those who have passed through the elaborate ceremonials of initiation has already been discussed. This grouping may include the women as well as the boys who have not yet been taken formally into the tribal secrets. The men's-house is another institution which is more or less clearly associated with the ideas centering around initiation. But there is a very real danger in trying to separate into distinct compartments these various forms. of association: age groups based upon initiation, the segregation of the sexes, the men's-house, and the secret society. They may be genetically related to each other among some people, or they may be different in function among others. In North America, for example, there is far less male segregation than is found in Australia and in Melanesia.

The term "secret society" has been used to designate an important type of organization, the functions of which vary greatly. All the members of a tribe may be eligible, or it may be limited to a small group of males. The tribe may be split up into a number of societies, rivals of each other. It may have important governmental functions, as in Melanesia, or it may be simply a social club. It may even degenerate into a band which spreads terror among the uninitiated and is not at all dissimilar to a secret organization present in our midst. There is, therefore, no necessary correlation between the various features usually found in associations grouped together for convenience and called secret societies. The element of secrecy itself may be lacking. Initiation into the society is a fairly constant feature, but initiation may also be a necessary prerequisite into certain occupations such as that of the priest or shaman. There is the same

danger in thinking of the secret society as composed of a definite series of phenomena as in the case with totemism. The symptoms of the secret society which will be treated here are those generally found in many of these organizations in all the different grades of culture, from those of the savage to those of civilized man.

In a secret there is something inherently interesting, and the fact of the social exclusion of those not possessing it. The psychology of secrecy has never been thoroughly worked out. Some of the ordeals which the novice has to undergo on his initiation into the tribe have already been mentioned. As entrance requirements into the secret society these rites of initiation, often consisting of fright and buffoonery, are a necessary part. There is, again, the wealth of symbolism, the sacred paraphernalia, and the elaborate regalia, seen for the first time by the noviciate. Parallels between the primitive and the modern secret society are found also in the various degrees in ascending order and in the separation of the sexes. Even in our own civilization the secret society is essentially a man's affair. The Grange, it is true, admits women, but the Odd Fellows have their Rebeccas and the Masons their Eastern Star. Both of these female organizations, however, are more or less distinct from those of the men. In all our co-educational institutions the fraternities hold first place in the social life of the college with the sororities following far behind. The principle of fraternity and social solidarity, and the use of relationship terms, based upon purely fictitious ideas of kindred, still further strengthen the analogy between the primitive and the modern world of secrecy. Totemic features, tabus, and charms are additional features frequently present in both cases, with the