III. MILITARY AFFAIRS 321. Armor and Arms. The armor of the period was made of steel plate, fitting and completely covering the body. It was often inlaid with gold and elegantly ornamented. Firearms had not yet superseded the old weapons. Cannon were in use, to some degree, and also clumsy handguns fired with a match. The long bow continued to be the chief arm of the foot soldiers, and was used with great dexterity and fatal effect. Targets were set up by law in every parish, and the yeomen were required to practice frequently at contests in archery. The principal wars were the civil wars and those with France. IV. LITERATURE, LEARNING, ANd Art 322. Introduction of Printing; Books. The art of printing was introduced into England about 1477 by Caxton, a London merchant. Up to that time all books had been written on either parchment or paper, at an average rate of about fifty cents per page in modern money. The age was not favorable to literature, and produced no great writers; but Caxton edited and published a large number of works, many of which he translated from the French and Latin. The two books which throw most light on the history of the times are the "Sir John Paston Letters " (1424-1506), and a work by Chief Justice Fortescue on government, intended for the use of Prince Edward (slain at Tewkesbury). The latter work is remarkable for its bold declaration that the King "has the delegation of power from the people, and he has no just claims to any other power than this." The chief justice also praises the courage of his countrymen, and declares with honest pride that more Englishmen are hanged in England in one year for robbery and manslaughter than are hanged in France in seven years." 323. Education. Henry VI took a deep interest in education, and founded the great public school of Eton, which ranks next in age to that of Winchester. The money for its endowment was obtained by the appropriation of the revenues of alien or foreign monasteries which had been erected in England, and which were confiscated by Henry V. The King watched the progress of the building from the windows of Windsor Castle, and to supplement the course of education to be given there, he furthermore erected and endowed the magnificent King's College, Cambridge. 324. Architecture. There was a new development of Gothic architecture in this period, the Decorated giving place to the Perpendicular. 1399-1485] INDUSTRY AND COMMERCE 177 The latter derives its name from the perpendicular divisions of the lights in the arches of the windows. It marks the final period of the Gothic or Pointed style, and is noted for the exquisite carved work of its ceilings. King's College Chapel, Cambridge, St. George's Chapel, Windsor, and Henry VII's Chapel (built in the next reign), connected with Westminster Abbey, are among the most celebrated examples of this style of architecture, which is peculiar to England. The mansions of the nobility at this period exhibited great elegance. Crosby Hall, London, at one time the residence of Richard III, was one of the best examples of the "Inns " of the great families and wealthy knights. The Hall was pulled down in 1903, but it has been reërected on the Chelsea Embankment, on the Thames. V. GENERAL INDUSTRY AND COMMERCE 325. Agriculture and Trade. Notwithstanding the Civil Wars of the Roses, agriculture was prosperous and foreign trade largely increased. The latter was well represented by Sir Richard Whittington, thrice mayor of London, who, according to tradition, lent Henry V large sums. of money, and then at an entertainment which he gave to the King and Queen in his city mansion, generously canceled the debt by throwing the bonds into the open sandalwood fire. There is a fine fresco, representing this scene, in the Royal Exchange, London. Goldsmiths from Lombardy had now settled in London in such numbers as to give the name of Lombard Street to the quarter they occupied. They succeeded the Jews in the business of money lending and banking, and Lombard Street still remains famous for its bankers and brokers. VI. MODE OF LIFE, MANNERS, AND CUSTOMS 326. Dress. Great sums were spent on dress by both sexes, and the courtiers' doublets, or jackets, were of the most costly silks and velvets, elaborately puffed and slashed. During the latter part of the period the pointed shoes, which had formerly been of prodigious length, suddenly began to grow broad, with such rapidity that Parliament passed a law limiting the width of the toes to six inches. At the same time the court ladies adopted the fashion of wearing horns as huge in proportion as the noblemen's shoes. The government tried legislating them down, and the clergy fulminated a solemn curse against them; but fashion was more powerful than Church and Parliament combined, and horns and hoofs came out triumphant. EIGHTH PERIOD1 "One half her soil has walked the rest In poets, heroes, martyrs, sages!" O. W. HOLMES POLITICAL REACTION—ABSOLUTISM OF THE CROWN - THE ENGLISH REFORMATION AND THE NEW LEARNING 327. Union of the Houses of Lancaster and York. Before leaving the Continent Henry Tudor (§ 314) had promised the Yorkist party that he would marry Elizabeth, eldest daughter of Edward IV (see Genealogical Table, p. 179), and sister to the young Princes murdered by Richard III (§ 310). Such a marriage would unite the rival houses of Lancaster and York, and put an end to the civil war. A few months after the new King's accession the wedding was duly celebrated, and in the beautiful east window of stained glass in Henry VII's Chapel, Westminster Abbey, the Roses are seen joined; so that, as the quaint verse of that day says: "Both roses flourish - red and white In love and sisterly delight; The two that were at strife are blended, 1 REFERENCE BOOKS on this period will be found in the CLASSIFIED List of Books in the Appendix. The pronunciation of names will be found in the Index. THE LEADING DATES stand unenclosed; all others are in parentheses. 1485-1509] POWER OF THE CROWN 179 Peace came from the union, but it was peace interrupted by insurrections which lasted for several years. 328. Condition of the Country; Power of the Crown. Henry, it is said, had his claim to the throne printed by Caxton, and distributed broadcast over the country ($ 306). It was the first political appeal to the people made through the press, and was a sign of the new period upon which English history had entered. Since Caxton began his great work, the kingdom had undergone a most momentous change. The leading nobles, like the Earl of Warwick (§§ 296, 303), were, with few exceptions, dead. Their estates were confiscated, their thousands of followers either buried on the battlefield or dispersed throughout the land (§ 316). The small number of titled families remaining was no longer to be feared. The nation itself, though it had taken comparatively little part in the war, was weary of bloodshed, and ready for peace on any terms. The accession of the Welsh house of Tudor (§ 39) marks the beginning of a long period of almost absolute royal power. The nobility were too weak to place any check on the King. T Henry (Tudor) VII (formerly * Inherited the title Duke of York from his uncle Edward. See No. 5. The Princes murdered by Richard III. The clergy, who had not recovered from their dread of Lollardism (§§ 255, 283) and its attacks on their wealth and influence, were anxious for a strong conservative government such as Henry promised. The House of Commons had no clear united policy, and though the first Parliament put certain restraints on the Crown, yet they were never really enforced.1 The truth is, that the new King was both too prudent and too crafty to give them an opportunity. By avoiding foreign wars he dispensed with the necessity of summoning frequent Parliaments, and with demanding large sums of money from them. By thus ruling alone for a large part of the time, Henry got the management of affairs into his own hands, and transmitted the power to those who came after him. In this way the Tudors with their successors, the Stuarts, built up a system of "personal sovereignty" or one-man power". unchecked by constitutional restraints. It continued for a hundred and fifty years, when the outbreak of the great Civil War brought it to an end forever. 329. Growth of a Stronger Feeling of Nationality. It would be an error, however, to consider this absolutism of the Crown as an unmitigated evil. On the contrary, it was in one important direction an advantage. There are times when the great need of a people is not more individual liberty, but greater national unity. Spain and France were two countries consisting of a collection of petty feudal states. Their nobility were always trying to steal each other's possessions and cut each other's throats. But the rise in each country of a royal despotism forced the turbulent barons to make peace, and to obey a common central law. By this means both realms ultimately developed into great and powerful kingdoms. When the Tudors came to the throne, England was still full of the rankling hate engendered by the Wars of the Roses (§ 299). Held down by the heavy hand of Henry VII, and later, by the 1 At the accession of Henry VII, Parliament imposed the following checks on the power of the King: (1) No new tax to be levied without consent of Parliament; (2) No new law to be made without the same consent; (3) No committal to prison without a warrant specifying the offense, and the trial to be speedy; (4) Criminal charges and questions of fact in civil cases to be decided by jury; (5) The King's officers to be held responsible to the nation. |