IRENE (-es), called PAX (-acis) by the Romans, the goddess of peace, was, according to Hesiod, a daughter of Zeus and Themis, and one of the Horae. [HORAE.] She was worshiped at Athens and Rome; and in the latter city a magnificent temple was built to her by the emperor Vespasian. Pax is represented on coins as a youthful female, holding in her left arm a cornucopia, and in her right haud an olive branch or the staff of Mercury. IRIS (-is or idis). (1) Daughter of Thaumas (whence she is called Thaumantias) and of Electra, and sister of the Harpies. In the Iliad she appears as the messenger of the gods; but in the Odyssey, Hermes (Mercury) is the messenger of the gods, and Iris is never mentioned. Iris was originally the personification of the rainbow, which was regarded as the swift messenger of the gods. In the earlier poets Iris appears as a virgin goddess; but in the later she is the wife of Zephyrus, and the mother of Eros (Amor). Iris is represented in works of art dressed in a long and wide tunic, over which hangs a light upper garment, with wings attached to her shoulders, carrying the herald's staff in her left hand, and sometimes also holding a pitcher. (2) (Yeshil-Irmak), a considerable river of Asia Minor, rising on the N. side of the Anti-Taurus, and flowing through Pontus into the Sinus Amisenus in the Euxine. IS (Hit), a city in the S. of Mesopotamia, 8 days' journey from Babylon, on the W. bank of the Euphrates, and upon a little river of the same name. In its neighborhood were the springs of asphaltus, from which was obtained the bitumen that was used, instead of mortar, in the walls of Babylon. ISAEUS (-i), one of the 10 Attic orators, was born at Chalcis, and came to Athens at an early age. He wrote judicial orations for others, and established a rhetorical school at Athens, in which Demosthenes is said to have been his pupil. He lived between B.C. 420 and 348. Eleven of his orations are extant, all relating to questions of inheritance: they afford considerable information respecting this branch of the Attic law. ISĂRA (-ae: Isère), a river in Gallia Narbonensis, descending from the Graian Alps, and flowing into the Rhone N. of Valentia. ISAURIA (-ae), a district of Asia Minor, on the N. side of the Taurus, between Pisidia and Cilicia, whose inhabitants, the Isauri, were daring robbers. They were defeated by the Roman consul, L. Servilius, in B. c. 75, who received in consequence the surname of Isauricus. ISIONDA (-ae), a city of Pisidia in Asia Minor, near Termessus. ISIS (-is, idis, or idos), one of the chief Egyptian divinities, wife of Osiris and mother of Horus. She was originally the goddess of the earth, and afterwards of the moon. The Greeks identified her both with Demeter (Ceres) and with Io. [Io.] Her worship was introduced into Rome towards the end of the republic, and became very popular among the Romans under the empire. The ISSEDONES. most important temple of Isis at Rome stood in the Campus Martius, whence she was called Isis Campensis. The priests and servants of the goddess wore linen garments, whence she herself is called Linigera. Gnostic Gem of Isis, on a Scarabaeus. ISMARUS (-i) or ISMARA (-ōrum), a town in Thrace, near Maronea, situated on a mountain of the same name, which produced excellent wine. It is mentioned in the Odyssey as a town of the Cicones. The poets frequently use the adjective Ismarius as equivalent to Thracian. ISMENE (-es), daughter of Oedipus and Jocasta, and sister of Antigone. ISMENUS (-i), a small river in Boeotia, rising in Mount Cithaeron, flowing through Thebes, and falling into the lake Hylica. The brook Dirce, so celebrated in Theban story, flowed into the Ismenus. From this river Apollo was called Ismenius. ISOCRATES (-is), one of the 10 Attic orators, was born at Athens B. c. 436, and received a careful education. Among his teachers were Gorgias, Prodicus, and Socrates. He first taught rhetoric in Chios, and afterwards at Athens. At the latter place he met with great success, and gradually acquired a large fortune by his profession. He had 100 pupils, every one of whom paid him 1000 drachmae. He also derived a large income from the orations which he wrote for others; but being he did not come forward as a public speaker naturally timid, and of a weakly constitution, himself. He was an ardent lover of his country; and accordingly, when the battle of Chaeronea had destroyed the last hopes of freedom, he put an end to his life, B.C. 338, at the age of 98. He took great pains with the composition of his orations, but his style is artificial. Twenty-one of his orations have come down to us: of these the most celebrated is the Panegyric oration, in which he shows what services Athens had rendered to Greece in every period of her history. ISSA (-ae: Lissa), a small island in the Adriatic Sea, with a town of the same name, off the coast of Dalmatia, said to have derived its name from Issa, daughter of Macereus of Lesbos, who was beloved by Apollo. The island was inhabited by a hardy race of sailors, whose barks (lemba Issaci) were much prized. ISSEDONES (-nm), a Scythian tribe in Great Tartary, near the Massagetae, whom they resembled in their manners. They are represented as extending as far as the bor- to signify the whole country S. of Posidonia ders of Serica. ISSICUS SINUS. [Issus.] ISSUS (-i), a city in the S.E. extremity of Cilicia, near the head of the Issicus Sinus (Gulf of Iskenderoon), and at the N. foot of the pass of Mount Amanus, called the Syrian Gates; memorable for the great battle in which Alexander defeated Darius Codomannus (B.c. 333), which was fought in a narrow valley near the town. on the W. and Tarentum on the E. After the Romans had conquered Tarentum and the S. part of the peninsula, about B.C. 272, the name Italia had a still further extension given to it. It then signified the whole country subject to the Romans, from the Sicilian straits as far N. as the Arnus and the Rubico. The country N. of these rivers continued to be called Gallia Cisalpina and Liguria down to the end of the republic. Augustns was the first who extended the name of Italia so ISTAEVONES. [GERMANIA.] ISTER. [DANUBIUS.] ISTRIA or HISTRIA (-ae), a peninsula at the N. extremity of the Adriatic, separated from Venetia by the river Timavus, and from Illyricum by the river Arsia. Its inhabitants, the ISTRI or HISTRI, were a warlike Illyrian race, who carried on several wars with the Romans, till their final subjugation by the consul C. Clandins Pulcher, B. C. 177. Their chief towns were TERGESTE and POLA. ISTROPOLIS (-is), ISTROS or ISTRIA (-ae), a town in Lower Moesia, not far from the mouth of the Danube; a colony from Mi letus. ITALIA and ITALIA (-ae) signified, from the time of Augustus, the country S. of the Alps, which we call Italy. The name Italia was originally used to indicate a much more limited extent of country. Most of the ancients derived the name from an ancient king, Italus: but there can be no doubt that Italia, or Vitalia, as it was also called, was the land of the Itali, Vitali, Vitelli, or Vituli, an ancient race, who are better known under the name of Siculi. This race was widely spread over the S. half of the peninsula, and may be said to have been bounded on the N. by a line drawn from Mount Garganus on the E. to Terracina on the W. The Greeks were ignorant of this wide extent of the name. According to them Italia was originally only the S.-most part of what was afterwards called Bruttium, and was bounded on the N. by a line drawn from the Lametic to the Scylletic gulf. They afterwards extended the name as to comprehend the country from the Maritime Alps to Pola in Istria, both inclusive. Besides Italia, the country was called by vaThese were HESPERIA, a name which the rious other names, especially by the poets. Greece, or HESPERIA MAGNA, to distinguish Greeks gave to it, because it lay to the W. of it from Spain [HESPERIA], and SATURNIA, beLatium. The names of separate parts of Italy cause Saturn was said to have once reigned in were also applied by the poets to the whole inally the land of the Oenotri, in the councountry. Thus it was called OENOTRIA, origtry afterwards called Bruttium and Lucania: AUSONIA, OF OPICA or OPICIA, originally the land of the Ausones or Ausonii, Opici or Osci, on the W. coast, in the country afterwards called Campania; TYRRHENIA, properly the land of the Tyrrheni, also on the W. coast, N. of Ausonia or Opica, and more especially in the country afterwards called Etruria; IAPYGIA, properly the land of the Iapyges, on the E. coast, in the country afterwards called Calabria; and OMBRIOA, the land of the Umbri, on the E. coast, alongside of Etruria. Italy was never inhabited by one single race. It contained a great number of differeut races, who had migrated into the country at a very early period. The most ancient inhabitants were Pelasgians or Oenotrians, a branch of the same great race who originally inhabited Greece and the coasts of Asia Minor. They were also called Aborigines and Siculi, who, as we have already seen, were the same as the Vitali or Itali. At the time when Roman history begins, Italy was inhabited by the following races. From the perors Trajan and Hadrian.-(2) The name ITHACA (-ae), a small island in the Ionian sea, off the coast of Epirus, celebrated as the birthplace of Ulysses. It is about 12 miles long, aud 4 in its greatest breadth, and is divided into 2 parts, which are connected by a narrow isthmus, not more than half a mile across. In each of these parts there is a mountain ridge of considerable height; the one in the N. called Neritum, and the one in the S. Neium. The city of Ithaca, the residence of Ulysses, was situated on a precipitous, conical hill, now called deto, or "eagle's cliff," occupying the whole breadth of the isthmus mentioned above. Ithaca is now one of the 7 Ionian islands under the protection of Great Britain. ITHOME (-es), a strong fortress in Messenia, situated on a mountain of the same name, which afterwards formed the citadel of the town of Messene. It was taken by the Spartans, B.C. 723, at the end of the 2d Messenian war, and again in 455, at the end of the 3d Messenian war. ITIUS PORTUS, a harbor of the Morini, on the N. coast of Gaul, from which Caesar set sail for Britain, probably Vissant, or Wit sana, near Calais. mouth of the Tiber, between its right bank and the sea, dwelt the Etruscans, who extended as far N. as the Alps. Alongside of these, between the left bank of the Tiber and the Adriatic, dwelt the Umbrians. To the S. of the Etruscans were the Sacrani, Casci, or Prisci, Oscan tribes, who had been driven out of the mountains by the Sabines, had overcome the Pelasgian tribes of the Siculi, Aborigines, or Latins, and, uniting with these conquered people, had formed the people called Prisci Latini, subsequently simply Latini. S. of these again, as far as the river Laus, were the Opici, who were also called Ausones or Aurunci, and to whom the Volsci, Sidicini, Saticuli, and Aequi, also belonged. The S. of the peninsula was inhabited by the Oenotrians, who were subsequently driven into the interior by the numerous Greek colonies founded along the coasts. S. of the Umbriaus, extending as far as Mount Garganus, dwelt the various Sabellian or Sabine tribes, the Sabines proper, the Peligni, Marsi, Marrucini, Vestini, and Hernici, from which tribes the warlike race of the Samnites subsequently sprung. From Mount Garganus to the S.E. extremity of the peninsula the country was inhabited by the Daunians or Apulians, Peucetii, Messapii, and Sallentini. An account of these people is given in separate articles. They were all eventually subdued by the Romans, who became the masters of the whole of the peninsula. At the time of Augustus the following were the chief divisions of Italy, an account of which is also given in separate articles: I. UPPER ITALY, which extended from the Alps to the rivers Macra on the W. and Rubico on the E. It comprehended, 1, LIGURIA: 2, GALLIA CISALPINA; 3, VENETIA, including Carnia; 4, IsTRIA. II. CENTRAL ITALY, sometimes called ITALIA PROPRIA (a term not used by the ancients), to distinguish it from Gallia Cisalpina ITURAEA or ITYRAEA, a district on the or Upper Italy, and Magna Graecia or Lower N.E. borders of Palestine, inhabited by an Italy, extended from the rivers Macra on the Arabian people of warlike and predatory W. and Rubico on the E. to the rivers Silarus habits. Augustus gave Ituraea, which had on the W. and Frento on the E. It compre-been hitherto ruled by its native princes, to hended, 1, ETRURIA; 2, UMBRIA; 3, PIOENUM, 4. SAMNIUM, including the country of the Sabini, Vestini, Marrucini, Marsi, Peligni, etc.; 5, LATIUM; 6, CAMPANIA. III. LOWER ITALY, or MAGNA GRAECIA, included the remaining part of the peninsula, S. of the rivers Silarus and Frento. It comprehended, 1, APULIA, including Calabria; 2, LUCANIA; 3, BRUTTIUM. -Augustus divided Italy into the following 11 Regiones: 1, Latium and Campania; 2, The land of the Hirpini, Apulia and Calabria; 3, Lucania and Bruttium; 4, The land of the Frentani, Marrucini, Peligni, Marsi, Vestini, and Sabini, together with Samnium; 5, Picenum; 6, Umbria and the district of Ariminum, in what was formerly called Gallia Cisalpina; 7, Etruria: 8, Gallia Cispadana; 9, Liguria 10, The E. part of Gallia Transpadana, Venetia, Carnia, and Istria; 11, The W. part of Gallia Transpadana. ITĂLICA. (1) A town in Hispania Baetica, on the W. bank of the Baetis, N.W. of Hispalis, founded by Scipio Africanus in the 2d Punic war, who settled here some of his veterans. It was the birthplace of the em ITON. ITONIA.] ITŪNIA (-ae), ITŌNĬAS (-idis), or ITŌNIS (-idis), a surname of Athena (Minerva), derived from the town of Iton, in the S. of Phtriotis in Thessaly. Here the goddess had a celebrated sanctuary, and hence is called Incola Itoni. the family of Herod. During the ministry of our Saviour it was governed by Philip, the brother of Herod Antipas, as tetrarch. ITYS. [TEREUS.] IULIS (-idis), the chief town in Ceos; the birthplace of Simonides. [Cros.] IULUS. (1) Son of Aeneas, usually called Ascanius. [ASCANIUS.]—(2) Eldest son of Ascanius, who claimed the government of Latium, but was obliged to give it up to his brother Silvius. IXION (-Ŏnis), king of the Lapithae, son of Phlegyas, and the father of Pirithous. He treacherously murdered his father-in-law, to avoid paying the bridal gifts he had promised, and when no one would purify him of this treacherous murder, Zeus (Jupiter) carried him up to heaven, and there purified him. But Ixion was ungrateful to the father of the gods, and attempted to win the love of Hera (Juno). Zeus thereupon created a phantom resembling Hera, and by it Ixion became the father of a Centaur. [CENTAURI.] Ixion was fearfully punished for his impious ingrati JACCETANI (-orum), a people in Hispania Tarraconensis between the Pyrenees and the Iberus. JANA. [JANUS.] JANICULUM. [ROMA.] J. JANUS (-1) and JANA (-ae), a pair of ancient Latin divinities, who were worshiped IXTONIDES (-ae), i. e. Pirithous, the son of Ixion.-The Centaurs are also called Ixionidae. On even before Jupiter. He opened the year and the seasons, and hence the first month of the year was called after him. He was the porter of heaven, and therefore bore the surnames Patulcus or Patulcius, the "opener," and Clusius or Clusivius, the "shutter." earth also he was the guardian deity of gates, and heuce is commonly represented with 2 heads, because every door looks 2 ways (Janus bifrons). He is sometimes represented with 4 heads (Janus quadrifrons), because he presided over the 4 seasons. At Rome, Numa is said to have dedicated to Janus the covered passage bearing his name, which was opened in times of war, and closed in times of peace. This passage is commonly, but erroneously, called a temple. It stood close by the forum. It appears to have been left open in war to indicate symbolically that the god had gone out to assist the Roman warriors, and to have been shut in time of peace that the god, the safeguard of the city, might not escape. On new-year's day, which was the principal festival of the god, people gave presents to one another, consisting of sweetmeats and copper coins, showing on one side the double head of Janus and on the other a ship. The general name for these presents was strenae. JOPPE. diana from Scythia. On its banks dwelt a Scythian tribe called Jaxartae. JERICHO or HIERĪCHUS, a city of the Canaanites, in a plain on the W. side of the Jordan, near its mouth, destroyed by Joshua, but afterwards rebuilt. JERUSALEM or HIEROSOLYMA (-ōrum), inually the chief city of the Jebusites, a Cathe capital of Palestine, in Asia. It was orignaanitish tribe, but was taken by David in B.C. 1050, and was made by him the capital of the kingdom of Israel. After the division of the kingdom, under Rehoboam, it remained the capital of the kingdom of Judah, until it was entirely destroyed, and its inhabitants were carried into captivity by Nebuchadnezzar, king of Babylon, B.O. 588. In 536 the Jewish exiles, having been permitted by Cyrus to return, began to rebuild the city and temple; and the work was completed in about 24 years. After the death of Alexander the Great, Jerusalem was subject first to the Greek kings of Egypt, and afterwards to the Greek kings of Syria; but in consequence of the attempts made by Antiochus IV. Épiphanes to root out the national religion, the Jews rose in rebellion under the Maccabees, and eventually succeeded in establishing their capital of a separate kingdom, governed by the Maccabees. Respecting the history of this kingdom, see PALAESTINA. In A.D. 70 the rebellion of the Jews against the Romans was put down, and Jerusalem was taken by Titus, after a siege of several months, and was razed to the ground. In consequence of a new revolt of the Jews, the emperor Hadrian resolved to destroy all vestiges of their national and religious peculiarities; and, as one means to this end, he established a new Roman colony on the ground where Jerusalem had stood, by the name of AELIA CAPITOLINA, and built a temple of Jupiter Capitolinus on the site of the temple of Jerusalem, A D. 135. The establishment of Christianity as the religion of the Roman empire restored to Jerusalem its sacred character. Jerusalem stands due W. of the head of the Dead Sea, at the distance of about 20 miles (in a straight line), and about 35 miles from the Mediterranean, on an elevated platform, divided by a series of valleys from hills which surround it on every side. This platform has a general slope from W. to E., its highest point being the summit of Mount Zion, in the S.W. corner of the city, on which stood the original "city of David." The S.E. part of the platform is occupied by the hill called Moriah, on which the temple stood, and the E. part by the hill called Acra; but these two summits are now hardly distinguishable from the general surface of the platform, probably on account of the gradual filling up of the valleys between. The height of Mount Zion is 2535 feet above the level of the Mediterranean, and about 300 feet above the valley below. JASON (-önis). (1) Son of Aeson, and the celebrated leader of the Argonauts. His father, Aeson, who reigned at Iolcus in Thessaly, was deprived of the kingdom by his half-brother Pelias, who attempted to take the life of the infant Jason. He was saved by his friends, and intrusted to the care of the Centaur Chiron. When he had grown up he came to Iolens, and demanded the kingdom, which Pelias promised to surrender to him, provided he brought the golden fleece, which was in the possession of king Aeetes in Colchis, and was guarded by an ever-watch-independence. Jerusalem now became the ful dragon. Jason willingly undertook the enterprise, and set sail in the ship Argo, accompanied by the chief heroes of Greece. He obtained the fleece with the assistance of Medea, whom he made his wife, and along with whom he returned to Iolcus. The history of his exploits on this enterprise is related elsewhere. [ARGONAUTAE.] In order to avenge the death of his father, who had been slain by Pelias during his absence, Medea, at the instigation of Jason, persuaded the daughters of Pelias to cut their father to pieces and boil him, in order to restore him to youth and vigor, as she had before changed a ram into a lamb, by boiling the ram in a caldron. Pelias thus perished miserably; and his son Acastus expelled Jason and Medea from Iolcus. They then went to Corinth, where they lived happily for several years, until Jason deserted Medea, in order to marry Glauce or Creusa, daughter of Creon, the king of the country. Medea fearfully revenged this insult. She sent Glance à poisoned garment, which burned her to death when she put it on. Creon likewise perished in the flames. Medea also killed her children by Jason, and then fled to Athens in a chariot drawn by winged dragons. The death of Jason is related variously. According to some, he made away with himself from grief; according to others, he was crushed by the poop of the ship Argo, which fell upon him as he was lying under it.-(2) Tyrant of Pherae, was elected Tagus or generalissimo of Thessaly, B.O. 374. He possessed great power, and aspired to the sovereignty of Greece, but he was assassinated in 370. JAXARTES (-is: Syr or Syhoun), a great river of Central Asia, flowing N.W. into the Sea of Aral: the ancients supposed it to fall into the N. side of the Caspian, not distinguishing between the 2 seas. It divided Sog JOCASTE (-es) or JŎCASTA (-ae), called EPICASTE (-es) in Homer, wife of Laius, and mother of Oedipus. [OEDIPUS.] JOPPE (-es), JOPPA (-ae: O. T. Japho: |