other sentiments are often displayed by grunts, shakes, turns of the head, or movements of the hands, and among the people of India the hands play so large a part in conversation that they may almost be said to speak for themselves. It is only the Englishman who can converse with his hands in his pockets.

चुप

ऊह,

In Hindi the principal interjections are हे, हो, अहो, ओ "Ho!" or "Oh!" is used to superiors, asalt हे हे धर्मवतार “ 0 incarnation of justice!" which is the common method of addressing a Magistrate or Judge, हे प्रभु “ O Lord!" हे पिता “0 father!",, and, have no special tone of respect or disrespect. Sorrow is shown by आ, आह, हाए, हा हा, अहह "alas!" whence the common cry of native suitors, or persons applying to a ruler for redress, literally "twice alas!" One often hears dohâe khudâwand, dohâe Angrez Bahâdûr, which is as much as to say "grant me justice," or "listen to my complaint." Others are f f "fie!" "hush!" Gie, ओह “ah!” a cry of pain ; थू थू disgust ; हत तेरी, an expression with a suspicion of indelicacy about it, like too many of the native ejaculations, meaning "begone," and at times with a menacing tone "how dare you?" I suspect the word now spelt was originally from "to go away," "be stopped," and the feminine genitive of "thou," is explained by such filthy expressions as a "thy mother." Two men are quarrelling, and one says to the other "âh, terî mâ," "oh thy mother." The person addressed at once understands that some gross and filthy insult to his mother is intended, for indiscriminate foul abuse of each other's female relations is a favourite weapon with the natives of India. Thus the innocent word or "brother-in-law," has become the lowest term of abuse in these languages, the obscene imagination of the people immediately grasping the idea involved in this assumption of relationship.

Panjabi has mostly the same as Hindi. A very favourite

VOL. III.

18

interjection of surprise with Panjabis, though it is also used by the other languages, is वाह, and doubled वाह वाह. The simpleminded Panjabi says "wâh! wâh!" to every new thing he sees, and this favourite exclamation helps to form the once terrible war-cry of the fighting Sikhs, "wâh wâh! fatih guru ji!"

All the other languages have these common interjections, several of which are also Persian or Arabic more or less corrupted. Thus the Persian shad bash, “be joyful!" is used everywhere as a term of encouragement, "well done!" and is used to stimulate workers to increased efforts, to express approbation, or to kindle flagging courage. It appears mostly without the, as shabash, shabâshe, sabâs, according to the language in which it is used.

1

A few special remarks are due to a very widespread word which is claimed by the Non-Aryan writers, , I or f. This is used to call inferiors, to rebuke impertinence, in scolding or quarrelling, and in most languages takes also a feminine form,, . Dr. Caldwell shows that this word is also in use in the Dravidian group, and is there understood to mean "O slave!" Hemachandra, however (ii, 201), knows it as used in addressing (sambhâshane), and in dalliance (ratikalahe). For reproach (kshepe) he prescribes. I do not dispute the Non-Aryan origin of this word, but it must have found its way into Aryan speech at a very early date, and has there, to a great extent, lost its sense of rebuke, for it is often used merely to call attention, and in friendly condescension to an inferior, and there has sprung up beside it a form, used also in the same tone. The interchange of and need cause no difficulty, being, especially in early writers, extremely common. There does not appear to be any Sanskrit origin for this word, and the fact that in the

1 Dravidian Comparative Grammar, p. 440 (first edition).

Dravidian group it can be traced to a definite meaning, is one which carries great weight.

hear me, oh

are also used

In O. and B.is only used in calling males; when addressing females, O. uses, and B. . Thus O. Ma đì, a बजारकु जिबा g for "Come along, mother, let us go to the bazar;' B. निबेदये धनी शुन गो जननि “ The lady entreats, my mother"" (Bhârat, Vid.-S. 338)., in B. in contempt or reproof. Both these words seem to be fragments of, from Skr. in the sense of "person," the word लोग or लोगाई being used to indicate the women of the speaker's family, and especially his wife, whom it is not considered proper to speak of directly.

§ 85. It is necessary to revert to the subject of postpositions, although they were partially discussed in Vol. II. p. 295, because in that place they were regarded in only one of their two aspects, namely, as factors in the declensional system. Here they must be looked at as parts of speech, corresponding to prepositions in the western Aryan languages.

99 66

on

In Hindi, in addition to the postpositions mentioned in Vol. II., may be cited as very common the following, some of which are also used as adverbs. Thus af "without " (Skr. वहिस्) is used as a postposition with the genitive case, as घर के बाहिर "outside the house," or even without the genitive sign, as द्वार बाहिर “outside the door.” So also पार “ across,” the other side of," is very commonly used with the direct form of the noun in the phrase "across the river," "on the नदी पार other side of the river." So also a "with," "accompanied by," as as सूर सामंत समेत “ accompanied by his peers and paladins," the meaning of the postposition from HЯ++C requires this construction.

बीच "in," "in the middle of," fa"at the end of" (Skr. शिरस), कणे “ near to,” “ at the "with," "by means of,"

house of " ( Skr. कर्ण), संग "at," "at the house of "

(Skr.

),' are also colloquially common, both with and with

out the sign of the genitive, but more frequently with it. Panjabi has "near," literally, "in the bosom of," "from the side of," fa "in," which is the regular sign of the locative, "on the other side," and "on both sides" (of a river, valley, etc.), as well as the Hindi words given above.

The postpositions in Sindhi are more numerous, and are divided, more clearly than in the other languages, into two classes, those which are added direct to the oblique form of the noun, and those which are added to the genitive. Of the first class are T or нft “on," "leaning on" (Skr. HT), where in H. ↔ rather means "full," as "a full kos; afe and affu "up to," which Trumpp regards as an emphatic locative from तोडु “end;" जां, जिंत्र, जींच, जिएं, “ like ” (Skr. aan); gi, gig, "towards," with an ablative form gi यथा); डांह, डे "from the direction of" (perhaps from Skr. f); †, fa, "without" (Skr. ã) ; ai, any, X, ây “with ” (Skr. Ħ¤; cf. साणु, " सम; B. सने).

S. सूधां “ along with " H. सुधा and सुधा “ with," 0 सुधा or "together with," "all taken together," from Skr.

, according to Trumpp and others, but the O. usage seems to refer rather to Skr. T, in the sense of pleted."

“com

S. सींचा “ up to, ” “ till ” ( Skr. सीमा), P. सीं and सीउं, appears occasionally to be used as a postposition, and one or two others of less importance complete the list.

1 Platts (Grammar, p. 195), from whom I take this list, is the first writer to give the real origin and meaning of this word, which I, in common with most of my countrymen, had hitherto confounded with yahân "here." There was no need for Platts to be so very dogmatic and arrogant about this and one or two similar small discoveries. He should try to bear the weight of his stupendous erudition more meekly. We may be thankful, however, to him for condescending to make a few mistakes occasionally, to bring himself down to our level. Such are the remarkable bit of philology in note 1, page 164, and his remarks on the intransitive in notes to pp. 171, 174. He who undertakes to correct others, should be quite sure he is right himself first.

Of_the_second class are ब्राझां, बासूं, बाझों “ without,” P. बाझ, बाझों id. This rather means "owing to the absence of," as in the passage quoted by Trumpp, तान सूरिह भान्या सेल्ह देखण बाझों दोस जे “Then they were considered by the hero as thorns in the absence of his friend." It is probably connected with Skr. √ in the sense of being bound or impeded. f faat "without" (Skr. f), is also common in H. P. B. and O. In M. विना, and G. विना and वना (wind, wand ).

S. लाइ and लद् “ for the sake of,” correspond to H. P. लिये, and are used like it, either with or without the genitive particle; but in S. the meaning is the same in both cases, while in H. it differs; thus fa “for that reason," but ca â faâ "for the sake of him."

While in the other languages the postpositions, when not used as case-signs, are almost invariably joined to the genitive with the masculine oblique case-sign, in Sindhi they may take the ablative or accusative. Thus "in front," may take the accusative. It is probably like O. "in the first आदौ place," or with a negative "not at all," "at no time;" thus af literally "to begin with, he did not go there,” that is to say, "he never went there at all," locative of Skr. f "beginning.'

अंदरि “ within,” Skr. अंतर्, but more probably from Persian ओडो“ near to,” धार “ apart, without,” काणे “ for the sake of,” contracted from कारणे; मथे “ upon," loc. of मथो "head," "like to," "near to," are also used in the same way.

In Marathi, besides the postpositions which are exclusively employed in forming cases, there are some which are added direct to the oblique form of the noun, and others which require the genitive case-sign.

Of the former kind are "on" (Skr. uf), which is generally written as one word with the noun, as