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pedant," from pandita “a (so-called) learned man";' yoktrayati "he yokes," from yoktram "a yoke." Probably from this cause it arises that there are in the moderns neuter verbs with a causal termination, as M. fa "to bang," "crack,” "to totter." See § 28.

H. "to be amazed," All these points will be noticed in detail in their proper place, they are cursorily mentioned here as an introduction. to the general subject, and to show that there is an interchange and playing to and fro of forms and meanings which is somewhat difficult to unravel, and the more so as in colloquial usage the verbs are often very laxly and capriciously employed.

§ 12. Single neuter verbs are to a great extent early Tadbhavas as far as their stems are concerned, and consequently retain the Prakrit type. Thus they exhibit few or no traces of the tenfold classification of the Sanskrit or of the numerous phonetic changes that take place in the interior of the verb, but follow as a rule the form of the root in the present tense of the Bhû class. Here follows a list of some of the simplest and most used stems in the modern languages derived from verbs which in Sanskrit are Bhû. In the dictionaries the modern verbs are generally shown under the infinitive mood, but in the following lists I have thought it better to give only the stem; the reader can add the form of the infinitives if he wishes to refer to them in the dictionaries, as H. T, P. Tor ना, S. णु, G. वुं M. णें, 0. बा. In the Bengali dictionaries verbs are given under the stem alone.

Skr. √ भू “be,” pres. भवति, Pa. भवति and होति, Pr. भोदि, होदि, होइ, H. हो and so in all, except S. हुअ, and in O. होइ is contracted

1 A pandit in the present day in India is an individual who is supposed to be deeply read in all the most useless parts of Sanskrit literature, and is densely ignorant and contemptuous of all other branches of human knowledge.

VOL. III.

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to. This verb will be treated at full length further on as the chief auxiliary of these languages (see Chapter IV. § 66).

√ चल् move,” चलति, Pa. id. Pr. चलद्, H. S. चल, P. चल्ल, G. चाल, चळ, M. चाल, चल, चळ, 0. B. चाल.

√ लग् “ stick,” लगति, Pa. लगति and लग्गति, Pr. लग्गद्, where the ग्ग is probably caused by the passive लग्यते or the p. p. p. लग्न, H. लग, P. लग्ग, S. लग, in the rest लाग. It is neuter in the moderns.

√ कम्प् “ tremble,” कम्पति, Pa. id., Pr. कंपर, H. कंप, कांप, P. कम्ब, S. कंब, G. M. B. कांप, 0. कम्प.

√ भ्रम “ wander,” Pa. भमति, Pr. भमद् (Vik. iv passim ), H. भम, भौं, भंव, P. भरम, भौं or भउं, s. भर्म, भम, भउ, भंव, G. भ्रम, भम, M. भोव, भोंव.

There is little that is remarkable in the above list, the modern forms being regularly produced by the working of the usual phonetic laws. The verb sthâ "stand," being one of the common auxiliaries, demands a fuller notice. Here follow some of the principal tenses in the old languages:

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तिट्ठति ठाति चिष्ठदि (Mig.), चिट्ठदि (Caur.), ठाअद्, ठाइ (Var. viii. 25, 26).

ति ंति, ठांति चिष्ठंति, चिट्ठति, ठांति.

SKR.

√ स्था and ष्ठा i. S. 3 pres. fagfa

P. 3. तिष्ठति

Impr. S. 2. तिष्ठ

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Of the three forms in Pali that having

has survived to modern times, though in most cases with the dental instead of the cerebral aspirate. In H. there is only a

as its root-syllable

fragment in the shape of a past participle S. था m. थी ., P. थे . थीं / S. G. and O. have a whole verb, thus—

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The structure of these forms will be found discussed in Ch. IV. § 69. M. has an old poetical ठेणें “to be,” but from the Pr. form fag there is, as far as I know, only one descendant, and that is the modern Oriya adjective fas “standing," which seems to point to Pr. fafgå, Skr. fæð.

It is interesting here to notice the parallel treatment of Sanskrit and Latin sta in their respective descendants. Both roots survive, but have almost entirely lost the sense of “ standing,” and have come to mean “be,” “ become.” In S. G. and O. the above quoted verbs are used as auxiliaries denoting a more special and definite kind of being or becoming, and are thus distinguished from the less definite auxiliaries derived from भू or अस्. Sindhi huanu and thianu, Gujarati horun and thavun, Oriya hoibâ and thibâ, stand to each other exactly in the same relation as Spanish ser from esse does to estar (from stare). Thus Pedro es enamorado "Pedro is loving (by disposition)," but Pedro está enamorado "Pedro is in love (with some one)." So el es bueno "he is good (by nature)," but el está bueno "he is

well (in health)." In Italian, although stare still means "to stand," yet it is constantly and regularly used in the sense of being, thus sto leggendo "I am reading," does not imply that the speaker stands while he reads, but merely indicates that he is engaged in reading; just so an Oriya would say paṛhu thâun. Stai bene? "art thou well?" sta qui vicino "he is living close by," would be correctly rendered in O. by the exactly parallel expressions bhâla thâü? and eṭhi nikaṭ thâe. In French, as in Hindi, the verb has been lost, and a Frenchman has to use the roundabout expression il se tient debout for "he is standing," literally "he holds himself on end," just in the same way as the Indian has to say khara hai literally "he is propped up," (खडा = Pr. खड्डा = Skr. स्कब्ध from √ स्कभ् to support). /

§ 13. Examples of verbs derived from roots which in Sanskrit belong to other conjugations than the first are now adduced to show how completely all traces of the peculiarities of those conjugations have been abandoned.

Skr. √ या “go,” ii. याति, Pa. id., Pr. जादि and जादि (the latter as if from a Bhû verb याअति), H. जा, P. M. Bid., G. and O. retain जा in some tenses, but in others shorten it to G., O. fa.

√ स्वप् “ sleep,” ii. स्वपिति, Pa. सुपति, Pr. सुवद्द, सुअर, सुबे, H. सो, P. सौ, S. सुम्ह, G. सु, B. and O. सो.

√ Hì “fear,” iii. faûfa, Pa. Hufa, Pr. Hug, Hafz, åter (Var. iii. 19), M. भि, भे, G. बीह, बीही, बिह (not in the rest).

√ नृत “ dance,” iv. नृत्यति, Pa. नञ्चति, Pr. णच्चद्, H. नाच, P. नच, S. नच, G. M. 0. B. नाच् .

√ शक् “ be able,” v. शक्नोति and iv. शक्यति, Pa. सक्कति, सक्कोति, सक्कुणोति, Pr. सक्कइ, सक्कणोति, and सक्कु., H. सक, P. सक्क, S. सघ,

G. M..

In nâch, as in several other verbs derived from Div roots, the characteristic of the Div class seems to have got mixed up

with the root and has thus been preserved. Although in sak both Pali and Prakrit retain some traces of the peculiar type of the Su class, the moderns entirely reject them and form as if from a Bhû root, thus H. "he can," postulates a Sanskrit afa, and so with the other languages.

How the following verb came by its modern form I know not, but all the authorities agree in referring it to. It is a very common word, and it is just these very common words that are the most difficult to trace. Perhaps became, and so बूल and बोल.'

Skr. √ ब्रू “ speak,” ii. ब्रवीति and ब्रूते, Pr. बोल्लद् (Mrich. 230, end of Act vi.) Old H. बुल्ल (o is short in Pr.), H. बोल, S. बोल, all the rest बोल.

§ 14. In the above examples the modern verb retains the form of the present tense, but there is a tolerably large class of stems which retain the type of the p.p.p. of Sanskrit as modified by the Prakrits.2 These verbs express positions of the body, states or conditions whether material or mental, and the possession of qualities. The past participle of the Sanskrit has been treated as an adjective and a new verb formed form it, just as in English we have verbs "to contract," "to respect," "to edit," from the Latin contractus, respectus, editus, the respective past participles of contrahere, respicere and edere.

The modern Romance languages often preserve a long string of nouns derived from a Latin verbal root, while they have lost the verb itself; for instance, French, while it possesses no verb

1 Since writing the above I see that Hemachandra gives bollaï as one of the ten Prakritisms of kath; he means it evidently not as derived from kath, which is impossible, but as a popular equivalent (Pischel's Hem. iv. 2). In the same sûtra he gives also sanghaï for kath, in which we see the origin of M. sânganen "to speak." Hemachandra has also bolliaï =kathayishyati (iv. 360), bollium=kathayitum, bolliem kathyante (?), ib. 383. But he gives bruva as the equivalent of brû in iv. 391, so that the origin of bol still remains doubtful.

2 This process was indicated by me in Vol. I. p. 179. Hoernle afterwards discussed it as if it was his own discovery in Indian Antiquary, vol. i. p. 357. Perhaps he had not then seen my first volume.

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