ACTS OF SEDERUNT-ACT OF TOLERATION.

ACT OF UNIFORMITY-ACTINIA.

forms, or otherwise restrained their religious liberty, on condition of their taking the oaths of allegiance and supremacy, and subscribing a declaration against transubstantiation; and in the case of dissenting ministers, subscribing also to certain of the Thirtynine Articles. The clause of this act which excepted persons denying the Trinity from the benefits of its enactments, was repealed by 53 Geo. III. c. 160.

and evening service, according to the Book of
Common Prayer, and declare before the congregation
their unfeigned assent and consent to the use of all
things therein contained, upon pain of being ipso
facto deprived of their spiritual promotions. By this
statute, two thousand of the clergy, who refused to
comply with its provisions, were deprived of their
preferments. The statute also contained a regula-
tion that no schoolmaster in a private house should
instruct youth without having obtained a licence
from the Ordinary; but this regulation was repealed
by 9 and 10 Vict. c. 59.

ACTS, TEST AND CORPORATION,
TEST ACTS.

See article

The Protestant dissenters, however, still remained, notwithstanding these provisions, subject to the obligation imposed by the Test and Corporation Acts (q. v.) on all those who were admitted to any office, of taking the sacrament of the Lord's Supper according to the rites of the Church of England; but this disability was at length removed by the 9 Geo. IV. c. 17. And to this list of concesACTA SANCTOʻRUM or MAʼRTYRUM (Acts sions we are now to add the act of 15 and 16 Vict. of Saints or Martyrs), the collective title given to c. 36, allowing the dissenters to certify their places in the Greek and Roman Catholic churches, but several old writings, respecting saints and martyrs, of worship to, and register them with, the Registrargeneral of Births, Deaths, and Marriages, instead of now applied especially to one extensive collection the Archbishop, Bishop, or Court of Quarter-sessions. begun by the Jesuits in the 17th c., and intended These various acts of T. operated, however, to found in ancient works. to serve as a better arrangement of the materials the exclusive benefit of Protestant dissenters, and which was commenced by the Jesuit, Heribert This great undertaking, afforded no relief to Roman Catholics. With respect Rosweyd of Antwerp, has considerable importance, to the latter, the progress of emancipation was slower and more reluctant. By statutes, however, not only in a religious and ecclesiastical point of of 18 Geo. III. c. 60, 31 Geo. III. c. 32, and 43 Geo. view, but also with regard to history and archaIII. c. 30, most of the severer penalties and disabili-ology. After Rosweyd's death, in 1629, J. Bolland was commissioned by the order of Jesuits to continue ties to which they were formerly subject, were removed; and by 10 Geo. IV. c. 7, commonly called the work; and with the assistance of G. Henschen, the Catholic Emancipation Act, Roman Catholics he prepared two volumes, which appeared in 1643. were restored in general to the full enjoyments of all After the death of this editor (1665), the work was civil rights, being only excluded from holding ecclesi- carried on by a society of learned Jes its, who were astical offices, and certain high appointments in the styled 'Bollandists,' until 1794, when its further state. By another act of the 2 and 3 Will. IV. c. progress was prevented through the invasion of In recent times, the 115, it was provided that Roman Catholics should be undertaking has been resumed; and in 1846 the Holland by the French. subject in this particular to the same laws as were fifty-fourth volume was published at Brussels. Several applicable to Protestant dissenters; the effect of additional volumes have appeared since. The lives which provision is to empower them to acquire and hold property for such purposes. And now, by the are arranged in the order of the calendar. The first acts of 7 and 8 Vict. c. 102, 9 and 10 Vict. c. 59, and of the saints for January. A new edition of the first two volumes, published in 1643, contained the lives 21 and 22 Vict. c. 48, Roman Catholics and Jews 54 vols. appeared in 1863-69. For notices of other are relieved from all enactments calculated to collections of the same kind, see the articles SAINTS, oppress them, and are thus practically admitted to MARTYR, and MARTYROLOGY. all the privileges of the constitution.

In Scotland, toleration in religious matters is secured by various old Scotch statutes passed before the Union with England, particularly by the act 1690, c. 27; and this was followed up after the Union by the British statute 10 Aune, c. 7, s. 5, which declares that it shall be free and lawful for all the subjects in that part of Great Britain called Scotland to assemble and meet together for divine service without any disturbance; and to settle their congregations in what forms or places they shall think fit to choose, except parish churches;' an enactment which amounts to a legal recognition of dissenters, if, indeed, it may not be called their charter in Scotland.

ACTE'A, a genus of plants of the natural order Ranunculaceae (q. v.), the type of the sub-order Actaea, distinguished by the coloured imbricated calyx and indehiscent succulent fruit. The genus Actaea has four deciduous sepals, four petals, and a single baccate carpel.-A. spicata, the Baneberry or Herb Christopher, is a native of the north of Europe, found in bushy places in some parts of England. It is a perennial herbaceous plant, about 1-2 feet high, with triternate leaves, and the leaflets deeply cut and serrated, the flowers in racemes, the berries black and poisonous. The root is anti-spasmodic, expectorant, and astringent, and is sometimes useful in catarrh. Cimicifuga racemosa (Actæa racemosa

of Linnæus) is a native of the United States, whose roots are said to possess similar qualities, and are also reputed as a remedy for the bite of the rattlesnake.

ACTÆ'ON, a mythical personage, a grandson of Cadmus. He was trained as a hunter by Chiron. Having once surprised Diana while bathing in a fountain, he was changed by the offended goddess into a stag, and his own dogs, not knowing him, tore him in pieces. According to Euripides, Diana was jealous because Acteon had boasted that he ex

ACT OF UNIFORMITY is the name by which the statute 13 and 14 Car. c. 4, is usually described. By that statute it was enacted, that the Book of Common Prayer, as then recently revised, should be used in every parish church and other place of public worship in England, and that every schoolmaster and person instructing youth should subscribe a declaration of conformity to the Liturgy, and also to the effect of the oath and declaration mentioned in the act of 13 Car. II. st. 2, c. 1. It further enacted that no person should thenceforth be capable of holding any ecclesiastical promotion or dignity, or of conse-celled her in hunting. crating or administering the sacrament, till he should be ordained priest according to episcopal ordination, and with respect to all ministers who then enjoyed any ecclesiastical benefice, it directed that they should, within a certain period, openly read morning

ACTI'NIA, a genus of marine animals closely allied to the Hydraform Polypi, but of much greater size, and always living separately, very generally affixed by the base to rocks or shells. The old genus Actinia has been subdivided into a number

ACTION-ACTON.

of genera, and is now the type of a family, Actiniada. | active party. This procedure is known by the name They consist of a fleshy sac with one orifice, around which are numerous tentacula, and when these are expanded, much resemble flowers, and have therefore been called Animal Flowers and Sea Anemones. They are found on all shores; those of Britain

of an A. of declarator, which has been described as a suit in which something is prayed to be decreed in favour of the plaintiff, but nothing sought to be paid, performed, or done by the defendant. Lord Stair, in his Institutes of the Law of Scotland, says 'such actions may be pursued for instructing or clearing any kind of right relating to liberty, dominion, or obligation;' and he further observes, 'there is no right but is capable of declarator.' Various attempts have been made to introduce this mode of proceeding into the practice of the law in England, but as yet without success. The idea of the declarator has been said to have been derived by the Scotch lawyers from the French legal system, according to whose forms the existing administration of the Scotch law was originally moulded. In the institutes of Justinian there are, however, indications of the partial use of this form of A. by the Roman lawyers.

We may add that the word A. is derived from the Latin actio (agere), and that the plaintiff in a suit or action was originally said to be the actor, which, indeed, in the recorded pleadings of the Scotch courts, his counsel or advocate still is called.

the west coast of Greece, at the entrance of the A'CTIUM (now Azio), a town and promontory on Ambraciot Bay, now the Gulf of Arta, is memorable for the sea-fight which took place near it, 2d September, 31 B. C., between Octavianus (afterwards the Emperor Augustus) and Marcus Antonius. These two had for some time ruled the Roman world the east; it now came to a struggle for the sole between them-the former in the west, the latter in

possess a number of very beautiful species, but they are most abundant, and attain their greatest size and beauty in tropical seas. They are capable of moving by alternate contractions and expansions of the fleshy base, and can also make use of their tentacula for locomotion. The tentacula appear to act as suckers in capturing prey, which they promptly convey to the mouth, and which consists of small fishes, mollusks, crustacea, &c. They produce living young, the germs of which are formed in ovarian chambers, divided by radiating vertical partitions in the fleshy substance around the stomach cavity, and which pass into the stomach cavity, and are ejected from the mouth; but simple gemmules, furnished with cilia, are also discharged through the tenta-Sovereignty. The two armies were encamped on cula. The Actiniada possess a remarkable power of the opposite shores of the gulf: Octavian had 80,000 reproducing parts which have been cut away, and may be multiplied by division. They are very sensitive to light. A small A. which was captured in the Firth of Forth has been kept alive for more than a half century, and has produced numerous young. ACTINISM, the property of the sun's rays which produces chemical changes. See SPECTRUM.

ACTION, in its large and general sense, means a judicial proceeding before a competent tribunal for the attainment of justice; and in this sense it is applied to procedure, whether criminal or civil. In its more limited acceptation, it is used to signify proceedings in the civil courts, where it means the form prescribed by law for the recovery of a right, or what is one's due. And it is in this sense that it is regarded by the Roman law. In the law of England, the term A. used to be applied to proceedings in the courts of common law, as distinguished from those of equity, where the word suit was commonly used to denote litigation. What, in the courts of Queen's Bench, Common Pleas, and Exchequer, before the passage of the Judicature Act of 1873 was called Action-at-Law was in the courts of Equity called a Suit in Equity. See the articles COMMON LAW, COURTS

OF, and EQUITY.

In the Scotch law, which recognises no distinction in legal administration between law and equity, the word A. is defined comprehensively as a demand regularly made and insisted on before the judge competent for the recovery of a right. Accordingly, while in Scotland there is, as in England, a remedy for every wrong, the law recognises and gives effect to the right of a party to claim and to have declared a particular interest or right, even although that interest or right may not be withheld, or called in question. It is sufficient that it is doubtful, and that the ascertainment of it is necessary for the position and purposes of the plaintiff, or pursuer, as the Scotch law calls the

infantry, 12,000 cavalry, and 260 ships of war; Antony, 100,000 infantry, 12,000 cavalry, and 220 ships. Antony's ships were large, and well provided with engines for throwing missiles, but clumsy in their movements; Octavian's were smaller and more agile. Antony was supported by Cleopatra, Queen of Egypt, with sixty vessels, who induced him, against the opinion of his most experienced generals, to determine upon a naval engagement. The battle continued for some hours undecided; at last, Agrippa, who commanded Octavian's fleet, succeeded, by a skilful manoeuvre, in compelling Antony to extend his line of battle, whose compactness had hitherto resisted all attempts of the enemy to break through. Cleopatra, whose ships were stationed behind Antony's line, apprehensive of that line being broken, took to flight with her auxiliary fleet, and Antony recklessly followed her with a few of his ships. The deserted fleet continued to resist bravely for some time, but was finally vanquished; the land-army, after waiting in vain seven days for Antony's return, surrendered to Octavian. As a memorial of the victory that had given him the empire of the world, and out of gratitude to the gods, Octavian enlarged the temple of Apollo at tuted games to be celebrated every five years. He A., dedicated the trophies he had taken, and instialso built, on the spot where his army had been encamped, the splendid city of Nicopolis (city of victory), where Prevesa now stands.

ACTON, JOSEPH, PRINCE, prime-minister of Ferdinand IV. of Naples, was the son of an Irish physician, and was born at Besançon in 1737. After acquiring distinction in the naval service of France and Tuscany, he gained a position in the Neapolitan government, and became the favourite of Queen Caroline. His measures, prompted by his extreme hatred of France, were cruel and intolerant, and ultimately caused a reaction against the royal family

ACTS OF THE APOSTLES-ADAM AND EVE.

of Naples, and in favour of the French party and the Carbonari. When left unaided by English influence, A. lost the power he had so often abused, and died in 1811, deservedly contemned by all parties.

ACTS OF THE APOSTLES, the fifth book of the New Testament, the authorship of which is ascribed by tradition, and with the highest probability, to the Evangelist Luke. Beginning with the ascension of Christ, gives an account of the spread of the Christian Church; confined, however, chiefly to the part taken therein by the Apostle Paul. Notwithstanding its title, little is said of the other apostles, with the exception of Peter. The narrative closes with the year 62 A. D., Paul being then a prisoner at Rome. The book has always been received as canonical, except by a few Manichæan heretics, but its historical character has been impugned by the Tübingen School. Spurious ACTS were put in circulation by early Christian sects.

ACTUARY. The Actuarii, in ancient Rome,

were clerks who recorded the Acta of the senate and other public bodies. The term might therefore, so far as its etymology is concerned, be applied to men of business in general. But in the constantly increasing tendency to subdivide labour and specialize functions, there has arisen, in recent times, a distinct branch of business, embracing all monetary questions that involve a consideration of the separate or combined effect of Interest and Probability, especially as connected with the duration of human life; and it is to one who devotes himself to this department of business that the name of A. has been specially assigned. The investigations and calculations of the A. supply the principles of operation for the numerous institutions now engaged in the transaction of Life-assurance, Annuity, and Reversionary business. His functions might be briefly defined as the application of the doctrine of probabilities to the affairs of life. There are two Societies of Actuaries: The Institute of Actuaries of Great Britain and Ireland,' established in London, and the Faculty of Actuaries in Scotland,' established in Edinburgh.

ACU'LEUS, in Botany. See PRICKLE. ACUPRESSURE. See SUPPLEMENT in Vol. X. ACUPUNCTURE, (Lat., puncturing or pricking with a needle [acus]), is a very ancient remedy, and one practised extensively in the East, for the cure of headaches, lethargies, &c. In Europe it is principally employed to relieve neuralgic pains, and those of chronic rheumatism. Steel needles are made use of, about three inches long, and set in handles. The surgeon, by a rotary movement, passes one or more to the desired depth in the tissues, and leaves them there from a few minutes to an hour. Their insertion is accompanied by no pain, except the first prick-a fact the quacks of the 16th c. did not fail to take advantage of. According to Jerome Cardan, they travelled from place to place practising A., and before inserting the needle, they rubbed it with a peculiar kind of magnet, either believing, or pretending, that this made the operation painless. The relief to pain afforded by this simple operation is sometimes astonishing, and the wounds are so minute as to be perfectly harmless.-The needles are sometimes used as conductors of the galvanic current to deep-seated parts, and are sometimes made hollow to allow of a small quantity of some sedative solution being injected into the tissues, by which even the terrible pain of Tic Douloureux may be almost immediately

relieved. See NEURALGIA.

ADA and ADAFUDIA. See SUPP. in Vol. X. ADA'GIO, a slow movement or measure of time in Music, between largo, grave, and andante. In our more extended compositions of instrumental or

movement

chamber music, the second or third movement is
generally marked adagio, and serves as a contrast
with the rapid and energetic movement of the
preceding and following parts of the sonata or
symphony. The A. must be written in a measure
of time which will afford scope for a flowing and
expressive slow melody with a gracefully varied
accompaniment. Without contrasted
and a lively variety in the accompaniment, the slow
air would have a monotonous or dull effect. A clear
and expressive execution of the A. is a sure test
of ability and good taste in the player or singer, as
it demands a pure and beautiful intonation, a true
reading and phrasing of the cantilena, even in its
most minute details, and a careful attention to all
points of effect. The finest specimens of the A.
are found in the works of the old masters, Haydn,
Mozart, and Beethoven, and are as distinct in their
features as were the composers in their personal
characteristics. In recent works, our composers
have generally succeded better in their rapid move-

ments than in the A.

ADA'L and ADE'L. The name Adal is applied by geographers to the flat country lying between Abyssinia and the Red Sea, from Massowa in N. lat. 15° 40', to the Bay of Tajurra, lat. 11° 30′. Adel would seem to designate the coast-country from Tajurra to Cape Guardafui, part of which is known as the country of the Somauli.

ADA'LIA, a seaport of Anatolia, Asiatic Turkey, on the gulf of the same name, in N. lat. 36° 52'; EË. long. 30° 45'. The streets rise like the seats of a theatre, up the slope of the hill behind the harbour. Pop. 13,000.

ADAM and EVE. The narrative of the creation and fall of A. and E. is given in Genesis. To the Scriptural account, the later Jewish writers in the Talmud have made many tasteless additions. They tell us that the stature of A., when first created, reached to the heavens, while the splendour of his countenance surpassed that of the sun. The very angels stood in awe of him, and all creatures hastened to worship him. Then the Lord, in order to shew the angels his power, caused a sleep to fall on A., and removed a portion of every limb. A. thus lost his vast stature, but remained perfect and complete. His first wife was Lilith, the mother of demons; but she fled from him, and afterwards E. was created for him. At the marriage of A. and E., angels were present, some playing on musical instruments, others serving up delicious viands; while the sun, moon, and stars danced together. The happiness of the human pair excited envy among the angels, and the seraph Sammael tempted them, and succeeded in leading them to their fall from innocence.-According to the Koran, all the angels paid homage to A., excepting Eblis, who, on account of his refusal, was expelled from paradise. To gratify his revenge, Eblis seduced A. and E., and they were separated. Adam was penitent, and lived in a tent on the site of the temple of Mecca, where he was instructed in the divine commandments by the archangel Gabriel. After 200 years of separation, he again found E. on Mount Arafat. Many other traditions of the Jews and the Mohammedans respecting A. and E. may be found in Herbelot's Bibliothèque Orientale. In the system of the Christian Gnostics and Manichæans, A. is one of the highest Æons.-According to the Calvinistic theology, A. was the covenant head or federal representative of the whole human race, who were thus involved in the consequences of his breach of the Covenant (q. v.) which God made with him at his creation. This view is supported by reference to the parallel drawn between A. and Christ in Rom.

ADAM-ADAM'S PEAK.

v. and 1 Cor. xv., in the latter of which Christ is called, in contradistinction to A., ond man,' and 'the last A.'

A. was

chapters | results of his labours at Spalatro, contributed to his
In opposition to the heavy style of
the sec- reputation.
architecture prevalent at the time, A. introduced a
taste for lightness and decoration, which, however,
tended to the opposite extreme of weakness and
triviality. Those, however, who form the lowest
estimate of the general character of his designs,
grant him the merit of having effected great reforms
in British domestic architecture generally. In 1768
A. was elected M.P. for the county of Kinross.
During upwards of twenty-five years, his practice,
in partnership with his brother James, was more
extensive than that of any other architect of the
time. In 1773, the brothers commenced to publish
a series of engravings of their chief designs, which
Robert died in 1792,
was continued for some years.
and was buried in Westminster Abbey. The most
generally admired of his works is the Register
House, Edinburgh. Reddleston Hall, near Derby, is
regarded by some as his greatest work. Among his
other principal works are the University buildings
and St. George's Church, Edinburgh (both altered
from the original design), the Glasgow Infirmary,
the Adelphi buildings, London, the screen to the Ad-
miralty, Caen Wood House, Luton House (ahered),
Lansdowne House, &c.

ADAM (of Bremen), an old historical writer,
whose work entitled Gesta Hammenburgensis Eccle-
siæ Pontificum, gives a history of the archbishopric
of Hamburg from 788 A. D. to the death of the
Archbishop Adalbert in 1072. This work has great
historical value; in addition to its notices of eccle-
siastical affairs, it gives accounts of the northern
Slavonic tribes, which the author collected during a
visit to the Danish king Svend-Estrithson.
canon and magister scholarum at Bremen from 1067
to the time of his death, which took place in 1076.
ADAM, ALEXANDER, LL.D., an eminent scholar
and teacher, was born in the parish of Rafford, near
Forres, in 1741. His father was a small farmer,
with limited means and a numerous family, so that
young Adam had to struggle through much hardship
in the pursuit of the learning for which he thirsted.
While studying at the University of Edinburgh, he
had to support himself by giving private lessons, for
which he was paid at the rate of one guinea a
quarter. He breakfasted and supped on porridge
and small beer; a penny loaf served him for dinner.
Such was the stern initiation-not, indeed, a singular
case in Scotland-of the brave young scholar. His
patient merits, however, soon gained recognition.
A.'s first public office was that of classical master
in Watson's Hospital, Edinburgh; and not long after
(1761), he succeeded to the head-mastership of the
institution. In 1768 he was appointed rector of the
High School; and this situation he filled for nearly
forty years with distinguished ability and success,
giving himself to its duties with singular devotion,
and raising the reputation of the school beyond
what it had ever been before. In some of his

efforts to that end he encountered such opposition
as now seems almost fabulous. He composed a new
Latin grammar (1772), in which he aimed at com-
bining the study of English and Latin; but the
town-council prohibited him from teaching it. In
1791 he published his Roman Antiquities, the work
which did most to promote his reputation, and
which, though now generally superseded by more
accurate and comprehensive dictionaries, was for
many years the best manual of the kind in existence.
His Summary of Geography and History appeared
in 1794, his Classical Biography in 1800, and his
Latin Dictionary-an abridgment of a larger work
unfinished at his death-in 1805. On the 18th of
December 1809, Dr. A. died of a fit of apoplexy, the
effect of intense study, by which he had been seized
in his class-room five days before.
wanderings of mind that accompanied it,' says the
writer of the biography in the Encyclopædia Britan-

'Amidst the

nica-who afterwards filled his chair- he was constantly reverting to the business of the class, and addressing his boys; and in the last hour of his life, as he fancied himself examining on the lesson of the day, he stopped short and said: "But it grows dark; you may go," and almost immediately expired.'

ADAM, ROBERT, a distinguished architect, was born at Edinburgh in 1728. His father, William Adam of Maryburgh, in Fifeshire, was also an architect of no mean repute. After receiving a university education, Robert A. proceeded in 1754 to Italy, and thence to Dalmatia, where he devoted some time, in conjunction with Clerisseau, a French architect, to exploring and making drawings of the On his ruins of Diocletian's palace at Spalatro. return to Britain he rapidly rose to distinction, was appointed architect to the king, and obtained extensive employment. The publication, in 1764, of the

ADAMA'NTINE SPAR. See CORUNDUM.

A'DAMITES, a sect of fanatics who spread themselves in Bohemia and Moravia in the 15th and 16th centuries, but had no connection with the Hussites. One Picard is said to have been the founder of the sect about 1400. He styled himself Adam, the son of God, rejected the sacrament of the supper and the priesthood, and advocated the community of women. After his death, his followers spread themselves in Bohemia under several leaders. They even fortified themselves on an island in a tributary of the Moldau, and committed depredations around. They were detested as much by the followers of Huss as by the Catholics. Ziska (q. v.) made war Even as recently as against them, and slew great numbers; but they were never entirely rooted out. 1849, when the Austrian government declared reli gious liberty for all its subjects, certain members of this sect appeared and endeavoured to gain proselytes. The official investigation into their character which has recently taken place, represents their creed as a mixture of freethinking, quietism, and communism. The members belong to the peasant or labouring class; and both men and women are generally industrious, temperate, and discreet in their ordinary course of life; but at their nightly meetings, at which they dispense with clothes, the utmost licentiousness is said to prevail.--As early as the 2d c., there was a sect of Gnostic tendency, called Adamites, who sought, by abstaining from all indulgence of the senses, to recall the state of inno cence men were in before the fall. They therefore rejected marriage, and in order to exercise the virtue of continence, went naked, They held that for those who had once attained the state of innocence, all actions were alike indifferent-neither good nor evil. This doctrine led directly to the greatest licentiousness. Aberrations of this kind, under various disguises and modifications, have made their appearance from time to time in all ages.

ADAMNAN, SAINT. See SUPP. in Vol. X.

ADAM'S BRIDGE, a chain of shoals extending across the Gulf of Manaar, between Ceylon and the peninsula of Hindostan. It forms a great obstruc tion to vessels proceeding through the channel,

ADAM'S PEAK is the name given by the Arabs, a mountain. and after them by Europeans, to summit of the island of Ceylon, rising 7420 feet above the sea-level. The native name was formerly

39