AND

ITS RULERS.

BY

H. S. CUNNINGHAM, M.A.

ONE OF THE JUDGES OF THE HIGH COURT OF CALCUTTA, AND LATE
MEMBER OF THE FAMINE COMMISSION.

W. H. ALLEN & CO., 13, WATERLOO PLACE,

NOTE.

I have to express my obligations to Mr. J. Johnson, of the India Office, who has assisted me in the statistical portions of the work, and has superintended its passage through the Press. To his carefulness any pretensions to accuracy which it may possess are largely owing.

H. S. C.

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER I.

THE COUNTRY AND THE PEOPLE.

-

Introduction.-Area.-Population. - Employments. Comparison

with England.- Density of Population.-Rate of Increase.-

Death-rate.-Effect of Epidemics on Population.-Effect of

Famines on Population.-Food.—Cultivated Area.—Irrigated

Area.-Proportion of Irrigated Area in each Province. -Com-

parison of cultivated Area with that of the United Kingdom.—

Droughts and Famines.-Agricultural Out-turn.-Food-grains.

--Other Agricultural Produce.-Low Rate of Present Yield.-

Available Waste-lands.-Summary.-How the Land is Held.-

Bengal.-Punjab.-North-Western Provinces.-Oudh.-Central

Provinces.-Madras.-Bombay.-Agricultural Classes.-Large

Landowners.-Smaller Interests.-Condition of the Agricul-

tural Classes.-Local Differences.-The Indian Peasant.-

Detrimental Effect of British Rule on certain Classes.-

Isolation of Modern Life.-Price of Land.-Summary.-

Labourers.-Administration.-Army.-Police.-Cost of Civil

Administration.-Revenues.-Expenditure on Ordinary Public

Works.-Productive Public Works.-Railways and Canals.--

Financial Results.-Irrigation in the North-Western Provinces.—

Beneficial Results of Railways and Canals.-Trade.-Details of

Foreign Trade.-Imports.-Exports.-Absence of Manufactured

Exports.-Future Industries.-Progress of Indian Trade.—

Firmness of Indian Trade .

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CHAPTER II.

THE OBJECT IN VIEW.

Objects of British Administration.-Our Authority must be Main-

tained. Our Duty towards the Country.-India Pays no

Tribute.--Disintegration of Society.-Religious Equality.—

Government Unaided by the Public.--Want of Public Spirit.-

The Problem of Government.-Social Transition.-India

already far from the Primitive Stage.-Growth of Individualism.

-Dangers of Transition.-Great Care necessary on part of

Government.-Commercial and Industrial Enterprise must be

Fostered.-Land Tenure unsatisfactory.-Low Level of Life.

Comparison with England in the 14th Century.-Prospects of

India.

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CHAPTER III.

ADMINISTRATION.

Mr. J. S. Mill's Disapproval of the Transfer of Government.-His
Forebodings not Realised.-Government of the Crown superior
to that of the Company.-Changes since 1861.-Consolidation
of Acts relating to the Government of India advisable.-The
Government of India.-The Viceroy.-The Secretary of State.
-The Governors.-Lieutenant-Governors.-Chief Commis-
sioners.-The Regulating Act of 1773.-Mr. Pitt's India Bill of
1784.-The Act of 1793.-The Act of 1833.-The Agra Presi-
dency. Transfer of the Government from the Company to
the Crown.-The Indian Council's Act of 1861.-The Legislative
Council.-Local Legislative Councils.-General Controlling
Power of the Government of India.-Scheme for a Federation
of Provinces Impracticable.-Financial Difficulties of such a
Scheme.-Increased Territorial Proximity renders such a
Scheme Unnecessary.-The Governorships of Madras and
Bombay. Anomalous Position of Bengal.-Bengal Presidency
inconveniently Large.-Proposals for Territorial Redistri-
bution.-Advantages of Redistribution.-Objections to the
Governorships of Madras and Bombay.-Their Antagonism to
the Supreme Government.-Their Expense.-Their Condem-
nation by Lord Northbrook.-Arguments in favour of Madras
and Bombay being governed by Civilians.-Drawbacks to the
Indian Civil Service.-Best Prizes mostly given to Outsiders.--

Advantages of such Appointments being attainable by the

Service.-Necessity of an Agricultural Department.-Promotion

by Merit recommended by Famine Commissioners.-Objections

to Promotion by Seniority.-Plan for Removal of Incapables.-

Duties of the proposed Agricultural Department.-Abolition of

Madras Board of Revenue.-Reduction of Over-sized Districts

expedient.-Plans of Improved Administration .

CHAPTER IV.

FINANCE AND TAXATION.

Pre-Mutiny Finance.-Income and Expenditure.-Finance since

the Mutiny.—Lord Mayo's Decentralisation Scheme.-Provision

of a Famine Surplus.-Abolition of Salt Line.-Measures of

1878-79.-Revenue and Expenditure 1878-79.-Liabilities :

Permanent Debt-Temporary Debt-Treasury Notes-Service

Funds-Savings Banks' Balances-Excluded Local Funds-

Deposits-Political, Trust, Prize, and Railway Funds-

Deposits by Native Princes-Unexpended Capital of Guaran-

teed Companies-Bills Payable-Miscellaneous Liabilities-

Assets-Cash Balances - Buildings in England - Advances

to Guaranteed Companies-Loans to Native States - Pro-

ductive Public Works-State Railways-Irrigation Works.-

Financial Result of Productive Public Works.-Taxation :

Land Revenue-Provincial Rates-Salt-Customs-Excise-

Stamps Assessed Taxes.-Incidence of Taxation.-Home

Charges.-General Conclusions

CHAPTER V.

LAND TENURES.

Claim.-

Classes of Cultivators.-Reduction of Government
Revenue of Moghul Emperors.-Land Revenue: Punjab-
North-Western Provinces-Bombay-Madras.-The Govern-
ment Ryot.-Settlement Proposals.-The Permanent Settle-
ment. Its Proposed Extension.-Proposals for Redemption.—
Objections to Redemption.-Effect of the Permanent Settle-
ment in Bengal.-Its Cost to the Tenants.-Landlords and
Tenants in Bengal.-Collection of Land Revenue: British and
Native Systems.-Desirability of Fluctuating Assessments.-
Suspensions and Remissions of Land Revenue.-Mr. Caird's

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