3. Railway trestle bridge

Engineer.

life and authority of Bonaparte, was discovered at Paris, the latter chose to believe that the duc d'E. was privy to it, although there was not a tittle of evidence to prove this. Perhaps Bonaparte was afraid that the valor and humanity of the last descendant of the great Condé might one day prove dangerous to his power. Be that as it may, he unscrupulously resolved to seize the person of the duke. On the night of the 17th Mar., 1804, the neutral territory of Baden was violated, and the château of Ettenheim surrounded with a body of soldiers and gendarmes. The duke, at first, endeavored to defend himself; but the force was too great to be opposed, and he, with several friends and domestics, was captured, and carried prisoner to Strasburg, and immediatly after to Vincennes. On the 20th of Mar., he was tried before a court-martial, consisting of eight officers, and after an examination of five hours, was condemned to death. Half an hour later, the sentence was put into execution. So cruel and audaciously criminal an act has fixed a deep stigma on the character of Bonaparte. M. Dupin has published the records of the trial, and shown the illegality of the proceedings of the military commission. This illegality was publicly acknowledged by gen. Hullin, the president of the court. After the restoration, the bones of the judicially murdered duke were taken up, and interred in the chapel of the castle at Vincennes.

ENGINEER AND ENGINEERING. Engineering, the business of the engineer, is the art of designing and superintending the execution of works of a constructive character, such as roads, railways, bridges, canals, harbors, docks, works for supplying water to towns, drainage and sewerage works, mining machinery, and the working of metals.

It may be divided into two kinds-civil and military. The military engineer is an officer in the service of government, whose duties are principally to construct fortifications, to make surveys for warlike purposes, to facilitate the passage of an army by the construction of roads and bridges; in short, to execute all engineering works of a military nature; but he is also, especially in this country, called upon to undertake many works which more properly belong to the business of the civil engineer, such as the survey of the country-called the ordnance survey-the inspection of public works, and, in short, all the duties of a government engineer.

The civil engineering profession is subdivided into several sections, according to the special nature of the employment of its members. The railway engineer projects and superintends the execution of railways and all the works in connection with them, such as the alteration of roads and streams, the construction of viaducts, bridges, cuttings, and embankments. The hydraulic engineer constructs the works connected with the supply of water to towns, the filtering of water, its collection in reservoirs, and its distribution through a town or district; the irrigation and drainage of tracts of country; the protection of low lands from inundation, and the use of water as a motive power. The dock and harbor engineer has the management of all works connected with the sea or navigable waters, such as the construction of piers, breakwaters, docks, harbors, and light-houses. The mechanical engineer is principally concerned in the manufac ture of machinery, the working of metals, the construction of ships, steamers, cannon, and all the various structures in which the metals bear a prominent part. Then there is the mining engineer, who discovers minerals and manages mines; there are engineers who are specially engaged in the drainage of towns, and many other less prominent divisions of the profession.

In all engineering works, the contractor takes a very important part; he executes the works from the designs, and under the direction and superintendence of the engineer, and on his ability and good management the success of undertakings very materially depends.

The engineering works of antiquity are both numerous and prominent, many of them remaining while all other traces of their constructors have been swept away. The most notable of the works belonging to very remote antiquity are the harbors of the Phenicians, the palaces and sewerage of Nimroud, and the pyramids of Egypt; next in order come the harbors of ancient Greece, the bridge of boats across the Dardanelles, made by Xerxes, to transport his immense army into Europe, and his canal across the isthmus of the peninsula of mount Athos. The buildings of ancient Rome next claim attention-its theaters, temples, baths, and aqueducts, some of which carried water from distances of more than 50 m. into Rome; its roads, bridges, and drainage-works vie in extent and magnificence with the most celebrated works of modern times.

From that period down to the commencement of the 18th c., the most extensive works executed are the canals, embankments, and other hydraulic constructions used by the Dutch for the purposes of inland navigation, and to protect their low lands from the sea; the canals of North Italy, the cathedrals and fortifications of mediæval Europe.

Civil engineering, as a distinct profession, may be said to have originated, in England, about the middle of the last century; since that time, the improvements in the steam-engine by James Watt, its subsequent application to the railway system by George Stephenson, and its use in navigation, have given a great impulse to commerce and civilization; which, in their turn, have created the necessity for the numerous and magnificent engineering works of modern times; such as the innumerable railways,