Fired just as a storming party had arrived at the edge of the counterscarp, this fourgasse would have made a gap in their line thirty feet long, and the supports would also have suffered severely. Captain THEODORE A. BINGHAM, e. Range and Position Finding. f. Miscellaneous. While there was an appreciable increase in the production of aluminum in 1895 over that of previous years, the output, as for several years past, was from the works of one producer only. The Pittsburg Reduction Company during the year started up its new works at Niagara Falls, taking 4,500 horsepower from the Niagara Falls Power Company. The addition to its facilities enabled the company to turn out 850,000 pounds of the metal, an increase of about 100,000 pounds over 1894. The increase was readily taken up, and the demand for the metal is still beyond the capacity of production. The company has arranged to double the size of its plant and to increase the produc tion accordingly, having contracted for an additional 4,500 horse-power. No new uses for aluminum were developed during the year. The demand for the pure metal has been largely for the manufacture of small articles and household utensils, the demand for which is increasing. The cost, as heretofore, continues to limit the use. The production in Europe is still controlled by the Neuhausen Company in Switzerland, which controls the French works as well as its own, and is gradually extending its operations. The production, however, has not yet been much increased, and is estimated at about 50,000 kilo. for the Neuhausen and Froges Works. The British Aluminum Company, which purposes making the metal from Irish Bauxite, has not completed its works, and it is uncertain when it will become a producer. -American Manufacturer, January 24th, 1895. The chief use of this metal has continued to be as an alloy in the manufacture of steel, the demand in this direction having still felt the impetus given by the very successful tests of armor plate made of nickle-steel in different countries. The production of nickle in the United States from native ores has practically ceased, and nearly or quite all the nickle refined or consumed in this country is of Canadian origin. The other sources of nickle supply are the French colony of New Caledonia and Norway, the production of Sweden, which at one time was of some importance, having practically ceased. The amount imported into this country from Canada in the form of matte (all refined here) shows a falling off from 1894, the figures being 3,138,400 pounds for 1895, against 4,897,191 pounds in 1894. With the Russian contracts already secured for armor plate by manufactures in this country and the certainty of increase in our own consumption for the same purpose, the demand is sure to become greater, and the lower price makes the metal just so much more available as an alloy with steel. In spite of a rumored agreement between the French company controlling the New Caledonia supply and the refiners in this country to maintain the price and probably raise it, the present low figure of 25 cents in large amounts will tend to extend its use, and recent improvements in refining cheapening very materially the cost as hitherto treated will tend to keep down the price. -American Manufacturer, January 24, 1895. FORTIFICATIONS. Defensive System of Switzerland.* The fortifications erected in Switzerland in the last four years have a twofold interest for the engineer first, because they relate to the general problem of the defence of states, and secondly, because they illustrate the practical dispositions for the defence now in vogue in the military engineering profession. Under the first aspect especially, we will here briefly describe, following the Revue Militaire de l'Etranger, the fortifications erected in Switzerland during the past four years. The key to the defence of Switzerland is the Saint Gothard. Hence it is around the Saint Gothard that Switzerland has established her principal fortifications. Viewing these works merely as to their matériel they are important, since their cost has reached something more than eleven million francs. For the sake of clearness, these works may be divided into five groups. Following out this scheme, the five groups can be considered as forming two straight lines. On the first line running nearly north and south are: 1, The Airolo group; 2°, the central Saint Gothard group; 30, the Andermatt group. On the second line extending nearly east and west are the Furka and the Oberalp group. As a matter of fact, the position of the second line varies a little from perpendicularity to the meridian. It conforms to the direction of the upper Reuss, which makes a marked angle with the parallel, obliquing towards the north east. The Furka group consists of two works, the Galenhütten battery and the small fort of Furka, designed to control the valley of the Rhone, which begins at Furka. The Airolo group, more important than the preceding, consists of five works. The principal work, Fort Fondo del Bosco, commands the valley of the Ticino, and covers the débouché of the Saint Gothard tunnel. It is furnished with sixteen pieces of artillery, and is surrounded by a moat 10 meters (32.8 feet) deep, with reveted scarp and counterscarp. A battery at MottoBartolo and a gallery at Stucci, to the east of the two preceding works, flank them from a distance. There are also two blockhouses here, completing the Airolo group. Behind the Airolo group, four kilometers (21⁄2 miles) to the north is the central Saint Gothard group, consisting of four works. The chief one of these is the fort of Saint Gothard, flanked by the trenches of Bianchi, by the blockhouse of Cavanna, and by the blockhouse of Pusmeda. It is provided with only one cannon, showing that it is of far less importance than Fort Fondo del Bosco, placed on the first line. The Oberalp group is composed of the redoubt of Calmot and the position of Grossboden, which are intended to command the valley of the Rhine. Last of all is the Andermatt group, the most substantially organized of all, This article is worth studying with the assistance of a large map.—ED. Journal 37. comprising the fort of Bühl, the fort of Boetzberg, the flanking gallery of Altkirch, the position of Rossmetten and the blockhouse of Brückenwald boden. The Andermatt group is 10 kilometers (64 miles) to the north of that of the Central Saint Gothard, 17 kilometers (101⁄2 miles) east of the Furka group, and 8 kilometers (5 miles) west of the Oberalp group. These distances are measured as the crow flies, and are far less than the distances measured along the zig-zag roads that join these four groups of localities. These five groups of works are interesting from another point than that of masonry and arches; they are to be garrisoned by permanent troops, a new thing in Switzerland. These troops are made up of two battalions of infantry, and four companies of artillery, all picked troops, and are reinforced by six battalions of infantry from the Landwehr, three companies of artillery, and three companies of engineer troops (sappers), likewise from the Landwehr. In addition to these five groups of works constructed at the Saint Gothard, the Swiss have established fortifications at Saint Maurice, in the valley of the Rhone, to the west of the Saint Gothard position. The fortifications of Saint Maurice are placed at Savatan and Dailly. These works have cost two mil lion francs, and are occupied by a permanent garrison, consisting of a battalion of infantry, and a company of artillery. Fortifications are also projected for the vicinity of Luziensteig, in the valley of the Rhine, east of the Saint Gothard position. Of what value for defence are the works erected about Saint Gothard? This question is difficult to answer; their purpose seems to be the same as that of the forts around Namur and Liège; this much can be asserted, that they manifest a definite intention, on the part of Switzerland, to make her neutrality respected, just as the forts on the Meuse show the same intention on the part of Belgium. Under the supposition that Italy meant to force the Saint Gothard, cooperating with Austria and Germany, Switzerland would be hardest pressed to guard her neutrality. But even without fortifications, it would be difficult for an army to force the position of the Saint Gothard; and it is certain that with permanent magazines, cannon in place, and garrisons already mobilized, its defensive power would be considerably augmented. Looking at them in this light, as a preparation for war, the new fortifications will constitute a considerable advantage for the defence. These fortifications will be a point of support for the Swiss when operating offensively on the flanks of an invader, whoever this might be, and for maneuvering against his direct lines of communication, should he succeed in turning the fortifications of the Gothard. The location of each separate work, and the dispositions adopted, looking at them from a topographical standpoint, show very careful study. The sites chosen are tactically inaccessible, and their fire commands the narrow roads of approach that skirt the Saint Gothard tunnel, the probable objective of the Italian army, in case it purposed violating Swiss neutrality. It would be useless to discuss the contrary hypothesis, that in which the violator of Switzerland's neutrality was the adversary of Italy. In the present state of Europe, this supposition is too improbable to deserve consideration. France has no surer alley than Switzerland, and would have nothing to gain by violating her neutrality. L'Avenir Militaire, January 10th, 1896. [G. B.] MILITARY GEOGRAPHY. Deep Waterways-The Connecting Waters Between Lakes Huron and Erie. Although it is not expected that the deep water channel of the lakes in all its parts, including St. Mary's Falls canal, will be entirely completed until the opening of navigation in 1897, lake vessels will be afforded great advantages in using parts of this new waterway during the coming season. In some cases, whole sections of the 20 and 21-foot channel are now completed; others will be entirely finished within one to three months after the opening of the coming season, and others still will be completed as regards part of their width, so that advantage may be taken of the full draft which they will afford, although not the full width. This is especially true of sections of the work between Lakes Huron and Erie, or in other words, the channels that will be used by vessels in the Lake Michigan trade. With a view to showing the progress of work in all of the connecting waters between Lakes Huron and Michigan, the Review presents as a supplement to this issue a chart showing the present state of these improvements. The drawing was made by Mr. Edward Molitor, who has for a number of years past been engaged on work of this kind in the United States engineer office, Detroit, Michigan. Permission to make this drawing was granted by Lieutenant Cavanaugh, corps of engineers, U. S. A., who is in charge of the Detroit office, and the Review is indebted to Lieutenant Cavanaugh also for all information contained in this article. The main object in having this chart prepared is to show that shortly after the opening of navigation next season all sections of the 20 and 21-foot channel between Lakes Huron and Erie will be available to vessels drawing 20 feet of water, at normal stage, but unfortunately a great deal of dredging and rock blasting is yet to be done between Ballard's reef and Lime-Kiln crossing, Detroit river, and also in the Canadian channel between Amherstburg and the lower end of Bois Blanc island, Detroit river. These places are not covered by the big channel contracts. The work of dredging in the vicinity of Ballard's reef is dependent upon appropriations aside from those for the 20 and 21-foot channel between Chicago, Duluth and Buffalo. At the present time a channel 600 feet wide has been cleared of obstructions to a depth of 18 feet at the normal stage of water, from Ballard's reef to Lime-Kiln crossing, the axis of the channel being the lower Grosse Isle range lights. The eastern half of this channel, 300 feet wide, is now being dredged to a depth of 20 feet, while the western half is open to the use of vessels. After the eastern half has been completed to the full depth of 20 feet, which will be done probably about the first of September, it will be thrown open to the use of vessels during the time the western half is being dredged to full depth of 20 feet. The completion of the western half to full depth of 20 feet will give a channel 600 feet wide and 20 feet deep at the normal stage of water, as proposed, but the whole improvement will not be finished before the end of the season. In the channel between Amherstburg and the lower end of Bois Blanc island there are a number of obstructions having but 17 feet of water over them at the normal stage. This part of the river was to have been improved by the Canadian government and dredges were to have been put on last season, but as yet no steps have been taken for the removal of the obstructions, and as this will soon be the only part of the deep channels where obstructions reach above 18 feet, the United States will have to take the necessary steps for the removal of these obstructions, unless the Canadian government does so, in order that full advantage of other improvements may be obtained. With the completion of the eastern half of the channel between Ballard's reef and Lime-Kiln crossing, about the middle of next season, these obstructions will become even more serious, for they will lessen, by from 2 to 3 feet, the depths otherwise available. Now as to what may be expected shortly after the opening of navigation next season. In 1895 the loss to vessels in carrying capacity on account of low water was the greatest ever known, but there were times, however, during the period of best water when vessels from Chicago and Escanaba passed through the river drawing full 16 feet. The great difficulties encountered by these vessels were met at Grosse point and at Ballard's reef. Next season about 1800 feet at the lower end of the Grosse point section of the new channel, from the 19-foot contour in Lake St. Clair into Detroit river will, shortly after the opening of navigation, be available to traffic, giving an available depth of 19 feet through Lake St. Clair. Conditions at Ballard's reef, where there is now available a channel 300 feet wide and 18 feet deep at normal stage, (i. e. the western half of proposed channel) will remain unchanged until the eastern half is completed to the full depth of 20 feet, giving a channel 300 feet by 20 feet, about September 1, 1896; but it is unfortunate that little if anything more than 17 feet may be expected in the Canadian channel between Amherstburg and the lower end of Bois Blanc island. It is reasonable to expect, however, that with any improvement at all in the waters of the lakes generally, full 17 feet draft will be afforded vessels in the Lake Michigan trade. Firms owning vessels and controlling docks at Ashtabula are accordingly preparing for 17 feet draft in the rivers, and they propose to provide a similar draft in Ashtabula harbor, where dredges were at work the greater part of last season, and will again begin operations at the earliest opportunity in the spring. The situation is different as regards Lake Superior. For the trade through the Sault canal, there is, of course, no hope of increased draft, excepting such as may be derived from a natural increase of water levels, until the new canal is in readiness in the spring of 1897. Then, too, there is one section of the 20 and 21-foot channel in the Sault river-section 3 at Sailor's Encampment-upon which there is a great deal of dredging yet required. But it is now certain that all parts of the 20 and 21-foot channel work proper will be entirely completed during the coming season, as the condition of the work at present is as follows: Section 1, (two shoals near Round Island, above Sault Ste. Marie) is done; section 2, (Little Mud Lake and Dark Hole, Sault river) is practically completed; section 3, (Sailor's Encampment, Sault river) is well along towards completion and will be finished during 1896; section 4, (head of Mud Lake, Sault river) is completed; section 5, (foot of Lake Huron) not entirely completed but eastern half, 1,200 feet wide and 21 feet deep, available for traffic; section 6, (St. Clair Flats) is completed; section 7, (Grosse point, foot of Lake St. Clair) not entirely completed but lower 18,000 feet. giving a 19-foot navigation, can now be made available for traffic and entire section will be finished shortly after the opening of navigation in 1896; section 8, (mouth of Detroit river) not entirely completed, but available for traffic and will be finished shortly after opening of navigation in 1896. Now while it is shown here that there is every reason to expect at least 17 |