companies, the Aetna Indemnity and the United Security, have recently failed and were for a long time in a decadent condition. Litigiousness by surety com established during the year for the purpose of furnishing rates on all classes of bonds to all companies engaged in the fidelity and surety busi-panies in order to escape loss or effect ness. Nearly all American companies savings by compromise was generated are now included in the membership by the foolish rate-cutting carried on of this Bureau and have greatly by the companies for several years. But this fault, we think, cannot justly be benefited from its existence. charged against them within the last The charge that two or three years. rates were as a whole too high we do not believe to be well founded. The government business was, for several years, decidedly unprofitable and has been at no time excessively profitable. Considerable interest has been aroused through the efforts of the federal authorities to regulate the bonding of government employees by requiring that all companies shall furnish to the Treasury Department quarterly statements of their operations, these statements to be used by the Secretary of the Treasury as a basis for fixing the limit of liability that each company may assume on government contracts. This limit was placed by law at 10 per cent. of the capital and net surplus of each company. These federal regulations, enacted about two years ago, have been enforced rigidly and during the last two years have occasioned much concern in fidelity and surety circles, many prominent underwriters sharing the view that the attitude of the federal authorities is an encroachment on state control. Among the other important happenings of the past year may be mentioned the New York law of 1911 This reregulating contract bonds. fers to surety bonds in favor of the state or municipality and greatly increases the liability under such contracts. It provides that contractors on state and municipal work must furnish a bond of a surety company, the penalty of which amounts to onethird of the contract price of the work. The bond "besides guaranteeing the faithful performance of the contract, obligates the prompt payment of the sum due all persons supplying labor and materials in connection with such contract. It further provides that parties furnishing labor and materials for such contract work for which payment has not been made shall have a lien on the amount secured by the bond of the contractor and the right to intervene and be made a party in any action instituted by the state or municipality upon such bond, and have his rights and claims adjudicated in such action, the state or municipality having priority in the settlement. law also provides that if the liability of the surety is insufficient after the judgment of the state or municipality has been satisfied to meet all the claims for labor and materials, the claimants on account of such supplies shall have the remainder, if pro rata among any, distributed them." According to the opinions of certain underwriters this law will either result in increased rates or in the refusal by the companies to acThere is undoubtedly some measure cept such contract risks under the of truth in these charges, since two Owing to certain difficulties encountered in collecting indemnities, Congress in its session of 1909 appointed a joint commission to investigate the matter. The report of this commission made public early in March, 1911, was sweeping in character and declared that the bonding companies have not fulfilled their promises; that the present method of dealing with the companies should be abandoned; that the government should itself insure the fidelity of its employees; and that a fund be started for this purpose and a bonding bureau be established in connection with the Treasury Department to undertake this work. The report also asserted that rates were too high; that losses have not been paid either promptly or fully, owing to insolvency or litigation based largely on technicalities. Commenting on the conclusions of this report, one leading insurance journal states that: new law. The XV. SOCIAL ECONOMY AND SOCIAL QUESTIONS JOHN COLLIER EDUCATION IN CITIZENSHIP CIVIC AND ETHICAL EDUCATION New York high schools, only 40 hours are allotted to civics. One high school, the High School of Commerce, with an admirable course in citizenship, has 61.5 per cent. of its pupils continuously studying civics. THE SOCIAL CENTER Status.-The past year has shown a noteworthy increase of interest in civic education and ethical training. In the past, training in citizenship and training in the moral life have not, in this country, been regarded as proper functions of the state. In leaving out religion, the History of the Movement.-The public school saw no way to retain central, significant development of ethical instruction. In leaving out the past year toward both these ends politics, it saw no way to teach of moral and civic training, has been civics in a vital, contemporaneous the development of the social center form. Thus, it has come about that as a form of the school extension. the church, reaching continuously a (See also XXXVI, Education.) minority of the population, has been is necessary to antedate the year practically the sole ethical educator, 1911 in order to give the best conand the political parties, with their ception of the social-center movenecessary exaggeration, sectionalism, ment. Rochester, N. Y., in 1907, inand appeal to emotion, have been augurated the wider use of its school the main sponsors of citizenship buildings on a radically democratic training. basis. The example of Rochester It New York City.-Illustrating from has been the predominant influence New York City, which in both the in the subsequent development of above respects is fairly typical of the movement throughout the counAmerican cities, the following facts try. The main features of the suggest the situation: Neither ethics Rochester experience have been as nor student self-government is a follows: part of the public-school training. Public discussion of an absolutely Only one school gives prominent free character was encouraged. Any place to ethical training, as distinct group of citizens was entitled to the from sectarian foundation-the Eth- use of a school building for civic, ical Culture School, with its Lower recreational or social purposes, subEast Side affiliation, the Downtown ject only to the safeguarding of Ethical Society. On the side of civic school equipment. Civic clubs rapideducation, an investigation by the ly took form in schools throughout People's Institute of New York has the city and were federated into a brought out that of 27,010 students central council. In order to throw in 18 of the 19 high schools in New the school influence over the whole York City, only 2,579 were studying community, including the women civics in any form; and that of the and children, social and recreational minimum of 3,000 hours of school features were introduced-music, work required for graduation from amateur dramatics, motion pictures, social entertainment by neighbor- such is feared by the political mahood groups; but the forefront of chine. ter. In April, 1911, was held the first Southwestern Social Center Confer The the movement was civic. The Roch- Conferences. The past year has ester movement, at first universally seen two events which give evidence applauded, swiftly aroused the hos- of the nation-wide character of the tility of the controlling political or- movement that originated in Rochesganizations and, in a less formal measure, of the conservative church element. In no instance did a civic club ence at Dallas, Texas. Several of either surrender itself to partisan, the states adjacent to Texas were political influences, or allow itself to represented, and the forward characbe used, save as a forum of free ter of the movement in Texan cities speech, by social or religious radi- is instanced by the recent construccals. Nevertheless, the social cen- tion of five school buildings, deter was made a political issue in signed to allow the maximum of soRochester, the Board of Education cial-center uses, in Dallas. standing firmly in favor of the move- A more comprehensive convention ment and the city council opposing was the first National Social Center it, in the measure of withholding Convention held at Madison, Wis., in appropriations. The movement has Oct., 1911, with 150 delegates from thus been gradually starved although 15 states, including South Carolina, nothing has been done to diminish, California and Massachusetts. on the theoretical side, the thorough- Madison convention was organized going character of the school board's under the joint auspices of the Sopermission, namely, that the local cial Center Association of America community may use the school build- (New York) and of the University ing as it sees fit. In 1911 social cen- Extension Division of the University ters were continued, but for a re- of Wisconsin. This convention orduced period of time, and in 1912 ganized into the Social Center Asthis period will be further reduced sociation of America, with Dr. Joshua to not more than three or four Strong, of the American Social Servmonths. The president of the Rochester School Board, George M. Forbes, who, with Edward J. Ward, was the pioneer of the movement, has been defeated for reëlection, and, unless the progressive political elements win the offices in Rochester, the move ment is likely further to retrograde. Rochester's Experience.-Rochester has thus made three contributions of first moment to the science of social centers: ice Institute, New York, as its President; Edward J. Ward, University Extension Division (Madison, Wis.), Secretary. Membership in the National Association is unlimited, and there are no dues, but voluntary contributions may be accepted. Annual conventions will be held henceforward. As the vital issue in social centers seems to be the right of unlimited public discussion, and of democratic neighborhood organization in school buildings, this feature was very prominent at the convention and was emphasized in the constitution of the national body. At the same time, the child, as the proper cornerstone of all education, was not lost sight of, and a large view over the 2. It requires several years to movement as it exists in different bring forward this new type of com- cities and states shows that most of munity self-expression to a point the activities now conducted in sowhere it can dispense with outside cial centers relate primarily to the leadership and an endowment of child. The varied activities in the funds from the municipal treasury social center are made to fit into one or philanthropic sources. another in such manner that the 1. The social center, organized on the basis of thoroughgoing democracy, and held within the limits of non-partisanship in political matters and non-sectarianism in ethical matters, is practicable in a typical American city. 3. The movement is a genuine child is drawn into a civic club or force for citizenship training, and as into auxiliary clubs, and the adult is drawn into social and recreational extensively commercialized in Ameractivities, the social center being thus ica. (See below, the theatre, the a genuine, organic unit, appealing to commercialized dance, etc.). The the family as a whole. school has been devoted to the trainRelated Agencies. Various move-ing of the intellectual faculties, and ments which may be regarded as to the inculcation of technical and forerunners of the social center, in trade efficiency. The emotional life that they have an open membership of the child, as of the adult, which and conduct social-center activities, must necessarily be spontaneous, and although not making use of public is therefore to be broadly viewed as buildings, have continued during amusement, has been left out of ac1911. Prominent among such bodies count by the school, and has been, are Ford Hall, Boston; the People's of necessity, ministered to in a someInstitute, New York; the Brother- what narrow and special way by the hood, Rochester; social settlements church. As the result of this spelike Hull House, in Chicago; Green- cialization, commercialized amusewich House, in New York; and South ment has taken on an importance End House in Boston. Other organizations contributive to the social center and standing for some of its principles, are too numerous to mention, but may be instanced by the Home and School Leagues of many cities, the City Clubs, the Public Education Associations, the Granges, etc. new in the history of the world, and America is to-day witnessing the culmination of this development, which has only been seen in its true bearing within very recent years. Recreations Committee of the New York Child Welfare Exhibit, the continuous investigations of the New York Committee on Dance Halls and Vacation Resources, and of the National Board of Motion Picture Censorship. Need of Public Recreation.-Certain investigations conducted or completed within 1911 have made it clear that incalculable moral and social The Essential Idea.-It can prob- evil results from failure by the comably be said that the essential idea munity either to regulate or provide in the social-center movement, as the people's amusement. Notable related to the public school, is the among these are the investigations of idea that the school cannot and the Chicago and Minneapolis Vice should not attempt to meet all of Commissions, the investigation of the the community's or individual's needs during the regular school hours. There should be school activities to which the compulsory-attendance laws of the various states do not apply, and these auxiliary activities, capable of being organized on a cooperative and partially self-supporting basis, are perhaps best fitted to provide the civic, ethical, and emotional training of the child and of the whole population. Viewed from this perspective, the social-center movement is seen to be a solution to many vexed problems and to be the unconscious goal of a great diversity of special movements. It should therefore be borne in mind as the ultimate answer to many of the problems of commercialized recreation which are treated below. We are here particularizing on the outright provision by the municipality, through social centers and other institutions, of wholesome recreation. PARKS AND PLAYGROUNDS Chicago. The most extensive and notable provision of outdoor recreation by the state is witnessed in Chicago, where the small parks of the South Park, West Park and North Park system, and of the Special Park Board, have developed rap COMMERCIALIZED AND PUBLIC idly during 1911. Here can be seen RECREATION the most successful and intensive development of park resources to be Commercialized witnessed in America, and probably been in the world. The small parks, Development of Amusement.-Recreation has REGULATION OF COMMERCIAL- ranging in size from one to fifteen | recreation commissions, whose duty acres, are devoted to competitive it will be to coördinate the recreagames, bathing, sports, gymnastics, tional activities of the city and to play by the younger children, and provide experienced and expert guidoutdoor pageants. They are like-ance for these commissions. wise, as a rule, provided with field houses which have been built with a view to maximum utility along recreational and university-extension lines. One of the triumphs achieved in many of the Chicago small parks is the beauty of architecture and However, the most vital and praclandscape gardening, which are posi- ticable function of the municipality, tively enhanced, rather than im- in relation to the people's play, is paired, by the intensive, practical still the function of regulating the utilization of park property. Other commercialized amusements. of the larger parks in Chicago, like the Sherman Park, have been developed as park playgrounds on a more extensive scale, where space has been sufficient to allow the segregation of play activities in one part of the park and the development of the remainder for promenade and purely aesthetic purposes. Statistical facts as to the extent and variety of commercialized amusements are only partially available. It is known that there are about 1,500 regular theatres in the United States, and about 14,000 motion-picture theatres. The saloon is elsewhere treated in this volume. There are more than 600 licensed dance Kansas City, through its Board of halls in New York City, and similar Public Welfare, St. Louis, through proportionate numbers in the other the Recreation Commission of the industrial centers of the country. Park Department, and Boston, in The leisure time of many immigrant connection with the movement of populations is consumed, to a degree "Boston-1915," have likewise under- recognized by few investigators, in gone rapid development in directions such resorts as billiard rooms and broadly similar to those of Chicago. coffee houses. The investigations of A significant additional develop the New York Committee on Dance ment in Chicago, seen particularly Halls and Vacation Resources have in the West Parks, is the movement shown that the summer parks, excurtoward a democratization of the sion steamers, etc., of New York government of the park. This effort, (and, presumably, of many other which has been most successful in cities), are used in illegal and evil West Park No. 2, is hampered by ways by those forms of the social political conditions, but its goal is the creation of a small park system that will be analogous to the social center, as described above, and which will transform the small parks into neighborhood institutions of a more complete character and, at the same time, economize the money of the tax-payers. the evil which are parasites on places of commercialized amusement. In general, it may be said that the policy of American cities toward this vast body of commercialized amusements has been one of neglect, of complete laissez faire, running on for a certain period and culminating in a violent public scandal, to be followed by extreme and unenforceable, restrictive laws, which, in their turn, have become inert, and the general result has been the exploitation and, frequently, the degradation of the public through the commercialized amusements. National Playground Association. -The central dynamo of the movement for the development of parks along lines of play and of neighborhood self-expression, is the National Playground Association of America, whose offices are in New York. The National Playground Association of Apart from the saloon question, America is working through field the conditions above outlined are agents in different parts of the coun- best illustrated in the theatre and try, for the creation of municipal dance hall. |