whitefish. The recommendations of | Zone in coöperation with the Smith the International Fisheries Commis- sonian Institution. sion for national and international The fish-cultural work of the Bucontrol of these fisheries shared as to reau, conducted at the 36 regular their most important provisions the hatcheries and 90 auxiliary stations, fate of the Puget Sound recommenda- yielded an output of 3,087,000,000 tions in the bill passed by the Senate young fish of about fifty species, to last May, leaving these valuable re- be distributed in suitable sources still subject to illogical and Three new hatcheries, one at Homer, conflicting local laws. Minn., and two in Hoods Canal, Washington, were ready for operation in the fall of 1911. waters. Interior Waters.-The most important interior fisheries are conducted in streams of the Mississippi A third branch of the Bureau's basin, yielding in 1908 a product work, study of the commercial fishworth $3,125,000, consisting chiefly of eries, consisted in 1911 of a special carp, buffalo-fish, catfish, mussel canvass of the oyster fisheries, which shells, black bass, crappie, paddlefish, is still in progress, and explorations sturgeon and frogs. In the interests by the Fisheries Steamer Albatross, of the pearl-button industry, artificial which resulted in the location of propropagation of the pearly mussels lific new fishing grounds for halibut has been in progress at the United in Alaska. States Fisheries station at Fairport, Iowa, since July, 1910. The fisheries are controlled by state and not federal laws, except the sponge fisheries of Florida and all fisheries in Alaska. With these exceptions, therefore, the Bureau of Fisheries has no administrative, but only advisory, powers. The important fishing interests of Alaska, however, are directly under Government control, and a special Alaska fisheries service is organized within the Bureau. By the sundry civil bill of March 4, 1911, this service was enlarged in personnel and extended to cover the protection not only of all aquatic resources but of all species of land fur-bearing animals of Alaska besides. United States Bureau of Fisheries. -This Bureau, formerly the United States Fish Commission, is a part of the Department of Commerce and Labor. Its basic function is economic biological research, such activities during 1911 comprising investigations of the oyster grounds of Alabama and Mississippi and means of combating the destructive oyster drill; of the life history of the Pacific salmons, especially as revealed in their scale structure; and of fish diseases, particularly a thyroid tumor in trouts which is thought to bear a relation to human cancer; the accumulation of data regarding the The Bureau received an appropriafreshwater mussel resources; bio- tion of $1,233,016 to cover its varilogical surveys of numerous inland ous activities during the fiscal year waters; and a survey of the Canal ending June 30, 1912. XXIII. MINING AND METALLURGY MINING AND ORE DRESSING CHARLES E. LOCKE The Mining Industry.—During the past year the mining industry has exhibited the same features as many other industries, viz: no general boom nor yet great depression but just a quiet, steady business, above the normal in some cases and below it in others. All of this is due to the prevailing unsettled business conditions of the country and to the general hesitancy to undertake any new enterprises until the future begins to look brighter after the trust and tariff conditions are settled and the next presidential election is over. Mexico. The revolution in our neighboring republic of Mexico has fortunately come to an end without any serious results and the future there looks bright under the new régime. It is fair to say that even while the revolution was on, the active mines, with a few exceptions, suffered very little and it was only new enterprises that were held back through the desire of capital to wait until times were more peaceful. Strikes.-There have been no serious labor troubles. A prolonged coal miners' strike in British Columbia affected the smelters somewhat. Alaska has received more than its share of attention owing to the controversies that have developed to such a point as to require settlement at Washington. Naturally the Alaskan people are anxious for the development of their mineral resources. The country should not turn them over into the hands of a monopoly nor should they part with them with the reckless prodigality which has marked the past. An opportunity exists for the government to dispose of its Alaskan minerals in such a manner that they will be properly conserved and at the same time retain at least part control and participate in the profits. Incidentally the "apex" mining law should be abandoned for something less troublesome and more logical. (See IV, The Conservation Question; and XII, Alaska.) The United States Bureau of Mines, which started in 1910 as a separate department from the U. S. Geological Survey, has met with marked success. Its main work has so far been with the more pressing problems of conservation not only of the mineral wealth but also more especially the lives of the miners. Valuable results have been obtained from the testing station at Pittsburg and from the demonstrating cars which cover different districts of the country and educate the miners in modern rescue methods. (See XIX, Conservation.) Mining Machinery.-In mining apparatus there is nothing radically new. The new tunnelling machines which were to chip their way through solid rock by means of a multitude of hammers appear not to have been successful in replacing the time-honored drill and explosive. Advances have been made in economies on existing apparatus. The use of the high-speed stoping and hammer drills, on the principle of the pneumatic riveting hammer, is on the increase, although the old-style piston drills still have the call where heavy work and deep holes are required. Electricity is gaining more and more for tramming, hoisting, pumping and general use, but the ideal electric drill has not been invented. At Butte, Mont., the Amalgamated Copper Com pany has replaced steam by electric- The rich diggings are largely exhaustity, but the electricity is used direct ed and the output now comes mostly only for pumping, and in other cases from lower-grade placers worked on the electric motors have been coupled large scale by hydraulicking and to the compressors and compressed dredging. air preheated runs the hoists and drills. By this scheme the company made use of much of its old machinery and has to pay interest charges only on the new electric motors. (See XXXII, Electrical Engineering.) Silver. In silver mining the increased price of silver has caused the mines to yield better returns. The Cobalt district of Ontario has held up to its past record, but it is not expected that this rate can be maintained for a long period. Already some of the smaller mines have about exhausted their ground and some of the larger mines have made reductions in their dividends. Attention Low Grade Ores.-The development of large low-grade deposits has brought out new problems in mining methods. Such deposits approach the nearest to a straight manufactur- has been given to the handling of ing enterprise. Prospecting by dia- lower-grade rock by concentration mond and churn drills enable the and also to the reduction of highamount and value of the ore to be grade ore into bullion at the mine to determined definitely in advance; save freight and smelter charges. where the ore is near the surface, These and other economies will serve the overburden of waste is removed by stripping and the ore mined in the open by steam shovels, or where the ore is deep large scale operations are carried on cheaply by some one of the caving systems of mining. In either case it becomes simply an example in arithmetic to determine the necessary capital outlay, working costs and final profits. partly to offset the depletion of the high-grade ore reserves. The comparatively recent application of the cyanide process to straight silver ores in Mexico has made an asset of lowgrade ore and old dumps formerly considered worthless. The rejuvenation and consolidation of the famous Comstock mines has led to economical working and also to the discovery of new ore bodies which give promise of increased yield from this quarter. Gold. In gold mining the most excitement has been over the Porcupine district of Ontario. It is too early to make definite statements, but ex- Copper. The copper industry has perts who are familiar with it claim suffered from a low price for the that there are already three or four metal due to a large surplus, to the prospects that have been developed fear of a large increase in production to the point where a reduction plant in the near future, and to a slackis warranted and a profit is in sight. ened demand owing to general unsetThe advent of the railroad during tled business conditions. The large the past summer served to reduce low-grade porphyry deposits already costs. The extensive fires which producing are the Nevada Consoliswept over the district in the early dated, treating over 6,000 tons daily autumn, while regrettable on account of 1.70 per cent. ore; the Utah Copof the loss of life, were a blessing in per, treating 20,000 tons daily of serving to clear off the country and 1.67 per cent. ore; and the Miami in help prospecting. The strict Canadian Arizona treating 3,000 tons daily of laws have put a curb on the exten- about 2.58 per cent. Others which sive "wild catting" and fake promo- will be producing in the near future tions that have marked the opening are the Ray Consolidated in Arizona, up of new districts in the past. At with 8,000 tons daily averaging 2.17 Cripple Creek the completion of the per cent.; the Chino in New Mexico, drainage tunnel has reduced pumping with 5,000 tons daily averaging 2.25 costs and rendered ore accessible at per cent. copper; and the Inspiragreater depths. A further extension tion in Arizona, with 5,000 tons daily of the drainage tunnel is under way. averaging about 2 per cent. There Alaska still contributes its normal are still other small properties which amount to the world's gold supply. will swell the grand total. Ore re serves in these properties are ap- and general lack of a business boom. proximately as follows: Nevada Considerable Cuban iron ore is now Cons., 40,000,000 tons; Utah Copper, coming to supply the iron blast fur203,000,000 tons; Miami, 18,000,000 naces located on or near the Atlantic tons; Ray, 78,000,000 tons; Chino, seaboard. 54,000,000 tons; Inspiration, 30,000,000 tons. 1 In the Lake Superior district the proposed merger by the Calumet and Hecla Co. of all its subsidiaries into one big company has been abandoned on account of the opposition met through the courts. The terms of the merger were probably as fair as it was possible to make them, but it was impossible to satisfy every one and the dissatisfied ones obtained court injunctions. Rather than put the merger through by a long legal fight it was given up, much to the disappointment of those who realized the economies that would result from it. Ore Dressing.-In the field of ore dressing the work of the year has been toward the perfection and more economical use of existing machines and methods. Water separation is almost universal, with pneumatic, magnetic and electrostatic processes applied only to special problems. The last is now fully developed to a commercial stage and a slow, steady growth is predicted. Flotation methods are little used on this continent, one exception being the Basin (Montana) plant of the Butte & Superior Co., which has recently installed a flotation process for zinc ores. (See infra, Lead and Zinc.) Inventors are working and it is possible that In California the farmers have suc- we may see important developments ceeded in closing some of the mines in ore-dressing methods in the near whose smelters were claimed to give future. Examples of increased econoff fumes which damaged vegetation. omies are in the large western copIn Montana also the fume question per mills, in which the units origiis not finally settled, although none nally designed to treat 400 or 500 of the mines have had to cease opera- tons daily are now treating double tions. (See infra, Copper; and that amount with practically the XXXII, Electrical Engineering.) same machinery; also in the Coal and iron have been in only Lake Superior copper district, where moderate demand. The iron ore in the Calumet & Hecla Company dex-the shipments through the canal have installed a regrinding plant at Sault Ste. Marie-showed in 1911 and are recovering copper at a profit to Sept. 30 a total of 24,106,818 long from tailings which formerly went tons, or a decrease of over ten mil- to waste. It is the hope of the manlion tons compared with 1910. Steel agers to be able to mine and treat outlook is gloomy owing to price cut- ultimately rock which is not worth ting, government trust investigation over a dollar per ton. COAL, COKE, AND PETROLEUM E. B. WILSON the miners by arbitration. On account of the strike in these states, the coal trade built up by years of labor has, to a considerable extent, been lost, as many who formerly used coal have switched to natural gas and petroleum as fuel. (See XXVII, State Geological Surveys.) Production. In 1911 the coal out- | fields, which were tied up by strikes put was approximately 460,000,000 in 1910, settled their differences with short tons. The anthracite mines of Northeastern Pennsylvania produced 93,000,000 tons, a quantity in excess of the demand, several million tons being stocked in anticipation of a coal strike in 1912. The labor leaders claim that the Strike Commission ruling, now eight years old, is unfair, owing to the increased cost of living. The operators of the Arkansas, Kansas, Oklahoma and Missouri coal Consumption.-The present demand for coal on the Pacific Coast does not greatly exceed 1 ton per capita, while the total demand for coal is The uncertainty of western coal beds 5 tons per capita in the United States. Alaska.-The Cunningham claims in Alaska, although taken up legitimately, were withdrawn from entry by the Department of the Interior; nevertheless, the Alaskan coal lands continue to be a source of friction, even since Secretary Ballinger's resignation. The latest phase of the controversy arises from the granting to a syndicate, of railroad terminal facilities which practically control the coal situation so far as the Katella coal field is concerned. Mine Explosions.-The most serious disasters that occurred in 1911 were the Price-Pancoast mine fire near Scranton, Pa., which smothered 72 men; the Banner mine explosion in Alabama, in which 128 men, mostly convicts, lost their lives; the Sykesville, Pa., explosion, which killed 21 men; the Cokedale, Colo., explosion, in which 15 perished; the Adrian mine, Pa., explosion, in which 23 were killed; the Bottom Creek, W. Va., disaster, in which 18 lost their lives, and the Cross Mt. mine, Tenn., disaster on Dec. 9, in which over 100 perished. Accident Prevention.-The United States Bureau of Mines has given special attention this year to rescue work and instructions in first aid to the injured. Practical measures to prevent accidents have been adopted by several large coal companies, particularly the H. C. Frick Coke Company, a subsidiary of the United States Steel Corporation. Using for its motto "Safety the First Consideration," this company continually warns employees inside and outside the mine to be careful of their lives and limbs and conform to the colliery rules. During the year, a light serviceable rescue apparatus has appeared which is likely to replace the dangerous, expensive and heavy oxygen helmet now universally adopted. Coal Lands.-Revaluation of government coal lands and their with drawal from entry at former prices caused some dissatisfaction during 1911. Lands within 15 miles of a railroad, which were once open to entry at $20 per acre, are now any price between $50 and $500 per acre. proving continuous, and the absence of government guarantees of continuity, make the new prices as uninviting to the wise rich as to the unwise poor, and tends to conservation. Coke. During 1911, Illinois, Ohio and Indiana increased their coke output, by-product coke ovens having been installed and coking coal shipped to them from other states. Washington, Utah, New Mexico, Tennessee and Alabama increased their production of coke, while Pennsylvania and West Virginia curtailed their coke output. About 18 per cent. of the coke in the United States in 1911 was manufactured in by-product ovens. The production of coke in the Pocahontas field materially decreased in 1911 and will probably further. diminish in the future, as coke making was ever a side issue in that field, to utilize slack that is now recognized as good coal. The Koppers oven has been introduced at the U. S. Steel Corporation's large steel plants at Joliet, Ill., and Gary, Ind. No improvements have been made in coke ovens during the year, and no waste-heat ovens have been introduced. Petroleum. During 1911, the Appalachian oil field was extended in Kentucky, one 100-barrel well having been drilled in Wayne County. With the abandonment of the "Gary" well in Washington County, Pa., the history of the oldest producing oil well in the United States closes. Over 720 wells have been abandoned in the Lima, O., field during the year. Illinois still continues to produce sufficient oil to attract attention, even although it is not so valuable as that of more easterly fields. The mid-continental field is second to California in oil production, although the price is but $0.50 per barrel. The Vivian (La.) well is producing enormous quantities of crude petroleum; the pressure upon the oil in this well is said to have no parallel in the United States. With a partially opened cap it flows 25,000 barrels, and this output could be greatly increased if there were facilities to care for it. In Texas the production of oil is increasing, and the Texas |