Other important sociological publications are the Annales de l'Institut International de Sociologie, two vols., xii, xiii, 1911, devoted to discussions of "Solidarity" as presented at the last meeting of the Institut at Berne, and The Mind of Primitive Man, by Prof. F. Boas, of New York, the latter giving in book form a number of the author's studies on racial questions, heredity, influence of environment, mental traits, language, aspects of culture, etc.

of his primitive forbears. In the United States to Germany (World preface to the work mentioned above, Organization and the Modern Interest and Art, the present writer State). In this work the writer has pointed out certain of the con- finds the inherent ground of worldfirmations given by M. Lévy-Bruhl's organization-its intrinsic raison work to results reached by him-and d'etre-to reside in the nature no doubt other writers will find sim- of the state itself, as modern ilar points of agreement-thus not- theory understands it. If the state ing the coming of the rapproche- is a quasi-person whose rights ment so greatly to be desired between and duties are in any sense anthropologists and psychologists. analogous to those of a person, then In social theory proper, an inter- the interstate jural relationships esting American work is that of should be developed in a world-orProf. W. Fite, of Chicago, entitled ganization of states, as those of the Individualism: Four Lectures on the individual are in the state itself. Significance of Consciousness for Social Relations. The author attempts, despite much recent work in social psychology and instrumental ethics, which have generally been considered as tending in the contrary direction, to reinstate a higher and more rational individualism. He holds that a choice in the direction of self-interest, if fully developed and informed, will include the motives of social solidarity and "expression," and will recognize the interests of others, in the larger synthesis which motives the decision to pursue one's own. It is an interesting reaction from the possibly too ready acceptance of "social-portance has attached. The unfinizing" motives in ethics and politics. But in its attempt to reach the wider synthesis of motives-in which the choice of the individual, although motived by self-interest, will do no injustice to the equal rights and similar choices of others-it is a question whether the term "individualism" does not lose most of its proper connotation. Unfortunately, the author does not take space to relate his theory to others; his references show familiarity with only a small and somewhat local group of writers.

The relation of individualism and collectivism, considered objectively as embodying themselves in social life and progress, is the topic of the present writer's little book, The Individual and Society.

We note the issue of a second edition revised of Prof. Bosanquet's Philosophical Theory of the State, whose central thesis remains unchanged; and the publication of a discussion of world organization by D. J. Hill, ex-Ambassador of the

Philosophy Proper.-The year 1911 has seen the issue of few constructive works to which immediate im

ished posthumous book by the late Wm. James, Some Problems of Philosophy: A Beginning of an Introduction to Philosophy, is a fresh and inspiring attempt to treat the timeworn problems from the standpoint of life and practice. It assumes, however, the philosophical positions familiar to readers of the author's earlier books; and besides, unfortunately, it is unfinished. It would have been interesting to follow the writer in the application of his views more systematically. The critical essays and appreciations written by James have been gathered into a volume entitled Memories and Studies.

Intuition. The translations into English of the works of Bergson, Time and Free-Will (Les Données immédiates de la Conscience), Matter and Memory (Matière et Mémoire), Creative Evolution (Evolution Créatrice), and Laughter (Le Rire), have served to clarify the atmosphere, by reason of the need of defining the relation of this author's

It comes under the heading of immediatism, as expounded in our last report, which is allied with affectivistic, and, in its Bergsonian form, with mystic, views. Many passages seem to indicate that Bergson may finally develop the hints he has already thrown out, that in aesthetic immediacy is to be found the intuitive sympathy with reality which most fully discloses its nature: a type of view for which the generic term "Pancalism" has been suggested as is indicated above.

views to those of the avowed prag- is to cover all forms of "alogism" matists. The new Oxford lectures, and to have no further differentia. La Perception du Changement, are now to be also taken into account. Prof. James himself opened the discussion by his appreciative notices of Bergson (in A Pluralistic Universe and elsewhere), and others, including Bergson, have taken up the question. It all depends, of course, upon the definition of pragmatism, for there is in our opinion no ambiguity about Bergson's position. He is an immediatist, an intuitionist (in his own acceptation of the term); neither a rationalist nor a voluntarist. What he has in common with all forms of pragmatism is his "alogism" (a word used indeed very early by Bergson himself to define his position); he disbelieves in the adequacy of thought. It is another thing, however, to go from this to the assertion that he is a pragmatist; for he is equally positive in his disavowal of the adequacy of action or practice for the revelation of reality. He makes the intellect the servant of action it is true, but just for this reason finds it inadequate to disclose the real. Both action and thought result, he is continually proclaiming, in the discontinuous, "snapshot," "cinematographic" disclosures which are mere points of view, and which prevent the apprehension of the continuous flux in time by which the real is constituted. It is only by a different sort of effort, a sympathetic intuition, immediate in its character, and direct in its method, that the absolute, the "really" real, is discovered. It is an enduring, changing, creative reality known only by living in it. This is fundamental and essential in Bergson's thought; and it is as far removed from all forms of utilitarianism as it is from all forms of rationalism. The real is given in life, in the experience of immediate duration, not by mediating processes either of practice or of thought; and in so far as either an end of action or an image of thought is erected between the living self and the life it lives, reality is distorted and made fragmentary.

This can not with any justice be called pragmatism, unless that term

Thought.-A new work devoted to the discussion of thought-the central problem of the philosophy of the day-with authority and vigor is the Pensée humaine (trans. 1911, from the Danish) of Prof. Höffding, of Copenhagen. Höffding agrees in general with the instrumentalists that thought is the instrument of life and action; but he does not agree either with the pragmatic or with the Bergsonian "alogists" in decrying and minimizing its function as a source of knowledge of the real in the singular and concrete. On the one hand, he agrees that thought is not to be construed as an absolute principle, static and given in a certain distant and ineffective universality-a set of categories through which the pith of the real sifts and is lost. On the contrary, he finds in thought the actual and vital instrument of the apprehension of reality. Furthermore, he does not agree that thought is only and essentially "geometrical," schematic, and general, cutting up the real into conceptual bits which only intuition can restore to real continuity. This he considers an untrue account of the actual functions of thought. The sharp dualism of functions by which, on the one hand, the rationalists place the pure intellect apart from the unformed and chaotic data of sense, and by which, on the other hand, the intuitionists deny to it the function of the discovery of an undistorted actual-this common dualism is in principle denied by him. The entire human achievement of knowledge is one; it is a movement of a progressive life; the intelligence

is of that endowment of life which | Body and Mind, by Prof. McDoumakes its living profitable, its ap- gall, which is, as the sub-title indiprehension reliable, and its truths cates, "a history and defense of true. The book is not helped in animism." our view by the theory of "mental energy," which the author attempts to apply; at the best this is a lame and confusing analogy. The work has too much the character of a didactic résumé of the author's earlier publication-reading like a text-book. It is strong, however, on the historical side: see notably the critical account of the Comtean theory of stages of racial interpretation (Part II).

XXXI. MEDICINE AND SURGERY

MEDICINE

ALEXANDER LAMBERT

Typhoid Vaccination.-Although Recently the ideas regarding the prophylactic injection against typhoid mode of transmission of typhoid fever fever is not new, its value has been have been undergoing a decided restrikingly illustrated within the past arrangement. Formerly it was beyear, in the inoculation of troops in lieved that typhoid was a water-borne the recent army maneuvers in Texas disease, and that if the water supply and along the Mexican border, and of a camp or community could be the results obtained in the freedom kept from pollution and the sewage from typhoid fever. (See also XVIII, properly cared for and disposed of, Public Health and Hygiene.) The typhoid would not break out. It was strength of the command at San An- noticed in the Spanish war, however, tonio was approximately 12,000 men, that there were typhoid epidemics in and among these only two cases of the camps when neighboring towns typhoid fever occurred, one being having the same water supply were an uninoculated civilian teamster, practically free from the disease, and and the other a soldier who had been the report of the Army Board which inoculated and who has had a very investigated the prevalence of the dismild type of the disease, his fever ease in the camps at the close of the running only two weeks. Hereto- Spanish war showed conclusively that fore, wherever troops have been 65 per cent. of the cases were contact mobilized, or wherever large numbers typhoid, and that the healthy men of men have been gathered together, helping the ailing comrades to roll typhoid has inevitably broken out their blankets, fold their tents, and with the resultant inevitable loss of take care of their clothing, became life. During the Spanish war 20,738 infected. It thus was seen that almen, or one-fifth of the entire army, though there was a lack of proper suffered from this disease, and the screening of the latrines from flies, 1,580 deaths from typhoid fever and much infection may have ocformed 86 per cent. of the total mor- curred through this means of contality of that war. These figures seem veyance, yet each company of the appalling, but were not unusual in separate regiments seemed to show a view of the knowledge possessed at variation in the peculiarity of its epithat time, and at the time of previous demic. Where the original source of wars, for in the Northern army alone the epidemics was probably located in the Civil War there were 80,000 remained unrealized. It was noticed cases of typhoid, and during the in Germany that after each of the Franco-Prussian war there were over maneuvers typhoid was brought by 73,000 cases, with 8,700 deaths among the soldiers from the villages to the the Germans alone, and 60 per cent. garrison. Koch and his assistants of the total mortality was due to this were sent to find if some means could disease. In the war with the Boers not be devised by which the spread the efficiency of the English army of typhoid could be checked. They was seriously crippled by the great found that the bacilli were retained prevalence of typhoid, there being in the intestines of convalescents some 31,000 cases with 5,800 deaths. much longer than was supposed, and

that in about 25 per cent. of the patients the bacteria were discharged in the urine during convalescence. It was further found that many people do not cease to be typhoid carriers for a number of months or years after their recovery. One such typhoid carrier gave a history of having had typhoid fever 52 years before.

It

6,708 cases of typhoid that 310 became carriers; 144 of these were transitory and 166 chronic. Females form 80 per cent. of the chronic and 60 per cent. of the transitory. Children under 14 years of age formed only 4 per cent. of the chronic, and but 35 per cent. of the transitory. Even small babies may be carriers The existence of these chronic ty- without going through an attack of phoid carriers has thrown a new light typhoid fever, and may be the means on the causation of the disease, and of starting a serious epidemic. they have been reported from every has also been shown by studying a land. A recent report on the typhoid large number of patients infected by carrier by Ledingham of England and contact in which the sources of infecreviewed by Grimm in the Public tion were known, that the period Health Report No. 58, 1911, contains when the secondary cases received inmuch new and interesting informa- fection could be made out. It was tion concerning these sources of found that the incubation period of danger. The typhoid carriers are typhoid averaged about 16 days, that classified by various writers in vari- a certain number of patients began to ous ways. The most comprehensive excrete typhoid bacilli in the first seems to be that of Saccaqupée, and week of their incubation period, and is as follows: (1) precocious carriers, a still larger number in the second those carriers in the incubation stage week, and that during the first week of the disease; (2) persons who have of the disease the greatest number of recovered from typhoid but who con- secondary cases were infected by the tinue to eliminate the bacilli, who are primary ones. This is rather a startdivided into two sub-groups: (a) con- ling discovery, for it makes us realize valescent carriers who cease eliminat- that a person who is about to have ing bacilli before the end of the third typhoid may be a source of infection month, and sub-group (b) chronic in the incubation period of the disease carriers, those who eliminate the ba- before he has any symptoms to cilli for an indefinite period; and (3) make him realize, or any one else recparadoxical carriers, those who have ognize, the fact that he has acquired never had even the symptoms of ty- the disease and is about to come down phoid fever, but who eliminate ba- with it. At present the pathogenesis cilli for an indefinite period. The of the carrier state must be put down frequency of the carriers among those as unsolved, and the treatment of this who have had typhoid varies greatly. condition is also unsatisfactory. What Different observers report the tem- percentage of the total occurrences of porary carriers as occurring 2 to 11 typhoid fever is due to the chronic per cent., while the chronic carriers carriers, of course, cannot be definitevary from 0.5 per cent. to 11.6 per ly stated, but Simonds draws attencent.; but it is a noticeable feature tion to the fact that in 1906 in Strasthat the more carefully the work has burg out of 2,080 sick with typhoid, been done and the better the bacterio- 978, or 47.7 per cent, were traced to logical technique used, the higher the their sources, and of these 746 were percentage of the chronic carriers be- from so-called contact typhoid, 49 of comes. Women in the ratio of 5 to 1 these cases being caused by bacilli are more frequently chronic carriers carriers. Thus 2.4 per cent. of all than men, although among temporary cases, or 5 per cent. of those the carriers the sexes are about even. source of which were discovered, were The great majority of chronic carriers due to typhoid carriers. Other statisare among persons between 40 and tics shows that from 9.5 per cent. to 45 years of age, while the greatest 20 per cent. have been due to carriers. number of transitory carriers occur The yearly number of typhoid pabetween the ages of five and ten tients in the United States is easily years. This is well seen from the some 350,000, and when we realize statistics of Frosch, who found in that 10,000 of these, on the small