embodying the archbishop's views as to Predestination and the Trinity. But Gottschalk was still unbending, and refused with much vehemence of behaviour and language. In consequence of this refusal, he died without the sacraments and under the ban of the church; he was buried in unhallowed earth, and was excluded from prayers for the repose of his soul.t

On the question of Gottschalk's orthodoxy or heterodoxy, very opposite opinions have been pronounced-a result rather of the opposite positions of those who have judged him than of any differences between them as to the facts of the case." As to these facts, however, there is room for an important question—whether his two confessions embody the whole of his doctrine on the subject of predestination, or whether he also held that opinion of an irresistible doom to sin, as well as to punishment, which his adversaries usually imputed to him. A moral judgment of the case is easier. Gottschalk's sincerity and resolute boldness were marred by his thoroughly sectarian spirit; but the harshness with which he was treated has left on the memory of Hincmar a stain which is not to be effaced by any allowances for the character of the age, since even among his own contemporaries it drew forth warm and indignant remonstrances.

From controversies of doctrine we proceed to some remarkable cases in which questions of other kinds brought the popes into correspondence with the Frankish church.

I. In 855 the emperor Lothair resigned his crown, and entered the monastery of Prüm, where he died six days after his arrival.* While his eldest son, Louis II., succeeded him in the imperial title and in the kingdom of Italy, the small kingdom of Arles or Provence fell to his youngest son, Charles, and the other territory north of the Alps, to which the name of Lotharingia was now limited, became the portion of his second son, Lothair II.

Lothair II. in 856 married Theutberga, daughter of the duke or viceroy of Burgundy, and sister of Humbert or Hucbert, abbot of St. Maurice. He separated from his wife in the following year, but

This answer was in accordance with Raban's opinion. See Kunstmann, Append. p. 218.

Hincm. De una et non trin. Deit. (i. 552-5); ad monach. Altavill. (ii. 314); Flodoard, iii. 28 (Patrol. cxxxv. 259).

"The Jesuits are strong in condemnation of him; the Jansenists and Augus

tinian Romanists (as the authors of the Hist. Litt. iv. 262), with Protestant writers in general, are favourable to his orthodoxy, and suppose that his opinions were misunderstood. Giesel. II. i. 138.

* Annal. Fuld. (Pertz, i. 369); Luden, vi. 44.

Y

Humbert, who was more a soldier than a monk, compelled him by a threat of war to take her back. In 859 Theutberga was summoned before a secular tribunal, on a charge of worse than incestuous connexion with her brother before her marriage; and the abbot's profession was not enough to disprove this charge, as the laxity of his morals was notorious.

It now appeared that, in desiring to get rid of his wife, Lothair was influenced by love for a lady named Waldrada, with whom he had formerly been intimate. Two archbishops-Gunther, of Cologne, archchaplain of the court, and Theutgaud, of Treves, a man who is described as too simple and too ignorant to understand the case-had been gained to the king's side, and insisted that Theutberga should purge herself by the ordeal of boiling water; but, when she had successfully undergone this trial by proxy, Lothair declared it to be worthless. In the following year the subject came before two synods at Aix-la-Chapelle, in which Wenilo, archbishop of Sens, and another Neustrian prelate were associated with the Lotharingian bishops. Theutberga—no doubt influenced by ill usage, although she professed that she acted without compulsion-acknowledged the truth of the charges against her, while she declared that she had not consented to the sin; whereupon the bishops gave judgment for a divorce, and, in compliance with the unhappy queen's own petition, sentenced her to lifelong penance in a nunnery. A third synod, held at Aix in April 862, after hearing Lothair's representation of his case that he had been contracted to Waldrada, that his father had compelled him to marry Theutberga, and that his youth and passions rendered a single life insupportable to him-gave its sanction to his marrying again; and, on the strength of this permission, his nuptials with Waldrada were celebrated, and were followed by her coronation. Gunther's services were rewarded by the nomination of his brother Hilduin to the see of Cambray ;

A.D. 860.

Prudent. Annal. 860 (Pertz, i. 454); Hincm. i. 575. Hincmar notes under the year 864 that "Hugbertus, clericus conjugatus," was killed by Louis II.'s soldiers.

2 Regino, A.D. 864 (Pertz, i. 571). a Ibid.

b I agree with Dean Milman (ii. 364) in doubting the story that they were nearly related to Waldrada. Regino (in Pertz, i. 571-2) says that Gunther was won to take part against Theutberga by a promise that his niece should be queen; but this niece was clearly a dif

ferent person from Waldrada.

Hincm. ap. Pertz, i. 465.

d It has been supposed, more or less confidently, that from the conduct of this prelate came the name Ganelon (the same with Wenilo or Guenilo), given to the traitor of Carolingian romance. See Baron. 859. 30; Ducange, s. v. Ganelon; British Magazine, xxiii. 260; Palgrave, Norm. and Eng. i. 166.

e Pertz, Leges, i. 467; Hincmar, i. 569, 574-7; Pagi, xiv. 564. f Hard. v. 539, seqq.

Hinem. Annal. 862 (Pertz, i. 453).

but Hincmar refused to consecrate the new bishop, and pope Nicolas eventually declared the appointment to be null and void.h

The partisans of Lothair had represented Hincmar as favourable to the divorce; but in reality he had steadfastly resisted all their solicitations. A body of clergy and laity now proposed to him a number of questions on the subject, and in answer he gave his judgment very fully. There were, he said, only two valid grounds for the dissolution of a marriage-where either both parties desire to embrace a monastic life, or one of them can be proved guilty of adultery; but in the second case, the innocent party may not enter into another marriage during the lifetime of the culprit." Among other matters, he discusses the efficacy of the ordeal, which some of Theutberga's enemies had ridiculed as worthless, while others explained the fact that her proxy had escaped unhurt, by supposing either that she had made a secret confession, or that, in declaring herself clear of any guilt with her brother, she had mentally intended another brother instead of the abbot of St. Maurice.P Hincmar defends the system of such trials, and says that the artifice imputed to her, far from aiding her to escape, would have increased her guilt, and so would have ensured her ruin. With respect to a popular opinion that Lothair was bewitched by Waldrada, the archbishop avows his belief in the power of charms to produce the extremes of love or hatred between man and wife, and otherwise to interfere with their relations to each other; and he gives instances of magical practices as having occurred within his own knowledge. He strongly denies the doctrine which some had propounded, that Lothair, as a king, was exempt from all human judgment;" for, he said, the ecclesiastical power is higher than the secular, and when a king fails to rule himself and his dominions according to the law of God, he forfeits his immunity from earthly law. He says that the question of the marriage, as it is one of universal concern, cannot be settled within Lothair's dominions; and, as it was objected that no one but the pope was

4 P. 613. There is also a letter on Stud. Ep. i. 33 (p. 239 D); cf. Ep. i. the Ordeal, ii. 676.

36.

"Rex a regendo dicitur," &c. (6746), a favourite sentence in councils, &c., of the time.

of higher authority than those who had already given judgment on it, he proposes a general synod, to be assembled from all the Frankish kingdoms, as the fittest tribunal for deciding it."

Theutberga had escaped from the place of her confinement, and had found a refuge with Charles the Bald, who, in espousing her cause, would seem to have been guided less by any regard for its justice than by the hope of turning his nephew's misconduct to his own advantage. She now appealed to the pope, whose intervention was also solicited by others, and at last by Lothair himself, in his annoyance at the opposition of Hinemar and the Neustrian bishops. In answer to these applications, Nicolas declared that, even if the stories against Theutberga were true, her immoralities would not warrant the second marriage of her husband; he ordered that a synod should be assembled, not only from such parts of the Frankish dominions as Lothair might hope to influence, but from all; and he sent two legates to assist at it," with a charge to excommunicate the king, if he should refuse to appear or to obey them.

The synod was held at Metz, in 863, but no bishops except those of Lotharingia attended. The legates had been bribed by Lothair; one of them, Rodoald, bishop of Portus, had already displayed his corruptness in negotiations with the Byzantine church." Without any citation of Theutberga, or any fresh investigation of the case, the acts of the synod of Aix.were confirmed. Nicolas represents the tone of the bishops as very violent against himself, and says that when one bishop, in signing the acts, had made a reservation of the papal judgment, Gunther and Theutgaud erased all but his name. These two prelates set off to report the decision to the pope--believing probably, from what they had seen of Rodoald, that at Rome money would effect all that they or their sovereign might desire. But in this they found themselves greatly mistaken. Nicolas, in a synod which appears to have been held in the ordinary course, annulled the decision of Metz, classing the council with the notorious Latrocinium of Ephesus, and ordering that, on account of the favour which it had shown to adulterers, it should

not be called a synod but a brothel. He deposed Gunther and Theutgaud, and declared that, if they should attempt to perform any episcopal act, they must not hope for restoration.h He threatened the other Lotharingian bishops with a like sentence in case of their making any resistance;' and he announced his judgment to the Frankish sovereigns and archbishops in letters which strongly denounced the conduct of King Lothair-if (it was said) he may be properly styled a king who gives himself up to the government of his passions. Rodoald was about to be brought to trial for his corruption, when he escaped from Rome by night. was evident from the manner of the pope's proceedings that the indignation which he sincerely felt on account of Theutberga's wrongs was not the only motive which animated him; that he was bent on taking advantage of the case to establish his power over kings and foreign churches."

k

It

A.D. 864.

Gunther and Theutgaud, in extreme surprise and anger, repaired to the emperor Louis II., who was then at Beneventum, and represented to him that the treatment which they had received was an insult not only to their master, but to the whole Frankish church, and to all princes-especially to himself, under whose safe-conduct they had come to Rome. On this Louis immediately advanced against Rome, and, without attempting any previous negotiation with the pope, entered the city. Nicolas set on foot solemn prayers, with fasting, for the change of the emperor's heart. Penitents moved about the streets in solemn procession, and offered up their supplications in the churches; but as one of these penitential trains was about to ascend the steps of St. Peter's, it was violently assaulted by some of the imperial soldiers. Crosses and banners were broken in the fray; one large cross of especial sanctity, which was believed to be the gift of the empress Helena to St. Peter's see, and to contain a piece of the wood on which the Redeemer suffered, was thrown down and trodden in the mire, from which the fragments were picked up by some English pilgrims. Nicolas, in fear lest he should be seized, left the Lateran palace, crossed the river in a boat, and took refuge in St. Peter's, where for two days and nights he remained without food. But in the mean while signs which seemed to declare the wrath of heaven