other instances in which this rule seems to be violated have been suecessfully corrected by modern scholars. 438 Having now shown by what increments of addition or insertion the present may be strengthened, we proceed to point out the relation which subsists between the root-vowel and that which appears as its locum tenens in the present tense. This subject has been already touched on in the chapter on the roots: it will, therefore, be sufficient in this place to give instances of the change of vowel in the Greek verb according to an arrangement first pointed out by Pott (Etymol Forsch. I. pp. 11 foll.). This scholar has divided the Greek verb into four classes according to the affections of the root-vowel in the leading tenses; (1) the root preserves the same vowel throughout all the inflexions; (2) the quality of the vowel is altered; (3) its quantity is altered, generally by doubling; (4) it is guna'd. The second aorist active, middle and passive, generally exhibits the root, and the prin cipal changes are those of the second perfect, or noun containing the verbal root which agrees with the second perfect, and the present. The reason for the change of vowel in (2), (3), (4) is, as we have seen, the greater weight of the perfect and present in consequence of the methods adopted for strengthening them. The present is generally a heavier form than the perfect or derivative noun, and, therefore, has the lighter vowel. It will be observed that there are some verbs, placed by Pott in the 3rd class, which are examples of guna: to prevent mistakes we have always stated the method of corroboration adopted in the particular case. 439 (1) This class is very numerous, as it contains all the weak or derivative verbs, many of which have already received a vowel modification in their crude-form. Thus from the root aɛv- we have nóvo-s and from this zovέ-w, in which the first vowel remains unaltered through all tenses. The most obvious instance of the primitive verbs of this class is second aorist -τvл-оv, second perfect tέ-tvñ-α, verbal substantive x-τúñ-os, present τúπ-T-W. ε 440 (2) In this class are included verbs with a primitive a (or ǎor Sanscrit) changed into o and ɛ in the strong tenses. It agrees with the 11th and 12th of the strong German conjugations, in which the root-vowel is followed by a liquid, or a mute and liquid, or preceded by a liquid (conj. 11), or followed by a liquid and mute, or a double liquid (conj. 12). This class is separated by Pott into four subdivisions, the second and third of which we consider identical. 2nd Perfect or Verbal Noun. δέ-δορκ-α B. Roots ending in liquid and mute; the liquid of course may shift its place. 2nd Aorist. ἔδρακον Presont. δέρκ-ο-μαι 441 (3) This class comprehends verbs having a for their rootvowel; this vowel is generally doubled or guna'd in the perfect and present, so that these verbs agree with the seventh strong German conjugation. * Pott considers τέρπω and τρέπω as belonging to different classes; we think that they are the same word, and regard them as but slight modifications of τρέφω. ἔ-λαβ-ον εἴληφα (guna and affix) λαμβάνω (adj. v, and anusvara) ἔ-δακ-ον ἐφάνην δέδηχα (guna and affix) δάκ-ν-ω (adj. ν) * Pott subjoins to this class a number of perfects such as πέφρικα ἔῤῥιγα, βέβριθα, τέτρια, &c., aorists such as ἔθιγον, κρίκε, δεκείν ἔκικον, &c., but they are, in our opinion, quite different. The vin πέπονθ-α belongs to the root, which is παθ-=πενθ- (above, $ 114) 442 (4) In the last class we find verbs which have or v for their root-vowel, and this is guna'd in the present and perfect, the guna-vowel being generally changed according to the law observed in class 2. This class corresponds, therefore, to the eighth and ninth strong German conjugations. 443 In giving to the augmented tense, which presents the root of the verb in its simplest form, the name of second aorist, we acknowledge the difficulty of determining in every particular case, whether this tense is really a second aorist, correlative with the second future, and produced by an evanescence of the affix 6-, or whether it is a conjugational variety, that is, the imperfect of a semel-factive verb, which never had any affix. The unaffected form in which the root appears would lead to the latter conclusion, and, not to speak of the semel-factive tenses in the Semitic languages, the Sclavonic languages give us different classes of verbs distinguished as semel-factive or monologous (in Polish iednotliwe) and frequentative or iterative (in Polish czestotliwe); so that this conjugational variety would not be without precedent. If we look through any list of so-called second aorists, in which the person-endings are joined immediately to the root without even the intervention of a short vowel, or any other fulcrum beyond guna (see Kuhn, De Conjugatione in -, p. 60; Gr. Gr. Art. 315, II.), we shall see that in most cases it is nearly impossible to say, whether the form is not due to some absorption or apocope of an affix. At any rate, it is clear that the shortest of these forms, and those too which we should most confidently refer to a conjugational variety, are identical in use with the regular aorist. This is shown in a striking manner by the fact, that in common verbs like τίθημι, ἵημι, δίδωμι, &c., the first aorist (ἔθηκα, ἧκα, ἔδωκα) is used only in the singular of the indicative mood, the shorter and apparently unaffected forms (ἔθεμεν, εἶμεν, ἔδομεν) being substituted in the plural and dual indicative, and in the other moods and participles. CHAPTER V. THE USE OF AUXILIARY VERBS IN GREEK. 444 Auxiliaries are generally verbs expressive of will and choice. 445 Differences between the infinitive and participle in relation to the auxiliary. 446 Definition of an auxiliary verb. 447 Use of oœxã; 448 Of ¿¿¿∞ and pélio. 449 Reasons for examining the Greek verbs which signify will or desire. 450 General enumeration of results. 451 Mάw signifies "to wish," "to take,” and "to see." 452 Verbs derived from 2άo bearing the last sense. 453 Verbs signifying “to take.” 454 Proper meaning of βλάπτω. 455 Λεία, λέων, λᾶας, δε Idea of selection implied in laas. Ancient buildings of picked stones. 456 Derivations from 2άo signifying "I wish." 457 Digression concerning ayir 458 Etymology of this word. 459 Αγάλλω, ἄγλαος, γελάω, &c. 460 Con nexion of "light" and "speech." 461 Other analogies: doelyns and ye λοείς. 462 Etymology of θέλω compared with θέναρ and θάλασσα. 463 Distinction of θέλω and βούλομαι. 464 Ελεῖν, ἕλκειν, and θέλγειν. 465 θε λεμος. 466 Etymology of βούλομαι. 467 The forms βουλήσομαι, ἠβουλή ↑ŋy, &c. 468 The intensive prefix ßov-. 469 Bovvós, &c. 470 The earth and the cattle. 471 Ovuós: its Platonic use; 472 Its etymology. Man. Θοάζω. 473 Θεός, θοός, &c. 474 Δεσπότης. 475 Δεσπόσιος and δεσπο GLOVαúτns; explanation of a chorus in Eschylus. 476 vuos and r μέλη. 477 Οργή, δέω, &c. 478 Αποῤῥοή applied to colours, &c. 479 Other applications of oorn. Words denoting kingly power. 480 Meaning of the phrase ἐπιφέρειν ὀργάς. 444 WHEN HEN a verb in some finite tense is prefixed to some other verb in the infinitive, so that the two taken together form one notion, and then combination is equivalent to a periphrasis of some tense, we say that the finite verb is used as an auxiliary. The verbs most frequently employed in this manner are those expressive of the condition or power of the agent, of his freedom from external hindrances, whether moral or physical, of his thoughts, intentions, will, or desire. That the employment of auxiliaries originated in the substitution of syntactical contrivances for the etymological inflexions of the older language, after these last had fallen into disuse or had become less obvious and significant, has been already shown at some length. In most of the languages of modern Europe, the system of auxiliaries has superseded all inflexions of mood and tense, and, indeed, of voice too, in the common verbs. In our own language, some of the verbs employed for this purpose have lost their applicability as independent verbs: thus, we never say "to may," or "to can," or "to shall," or "to must," though "I may," "I can," |