through meditation (dhyāna) and intuition; whereas, in contradistinction to this Buddhist idea, the main idea of the Jaina teacher Mahāvīra seems to have been that liberation was to be obtained through subjugation of the passions and through mortification of the body. The term Jina, 'conqueror,' is used in both systems, but Gautama Buddha was a Jina or conqueror through meditation, whereas Vardhamāna Mahāvīra was a Jina through Tapas or bodily austerity.

In fact, the Jainas, like many other ascetics, were impressed with the idea that it was necessary to maintain a defensive warfare against the assault of evil passions, by keeping under the body and subduing it. They had a notion that a sense of shame implied sin, so that if there were no sin in the world there would be no shame. Hence they argued rather illogically that to get rid of clothes was to get rid of sin; and every ascetic who aimed at sinlessness was enjoined to walk about with the air or sky (Dig) as his sole covering.

In the Kalpa-sutra of the Jains we read that Mahāvīra himself began his career by wearing clothes for one year and one month, and after that he walked about naked. Now Gautama Buddha was an opponent of Jain asceticism, and it seems to me probable that one of the chief points on which he laid stress was that of decent clothing. In the Dhammapada (141) occurs the sentiment that "Nakedness cannot purify a mortal who has not overcome desires." And again, in the Sekhiya Dhamma we have 'properly clad' 'must a monk itinerate.'

It is recorded in the Vinaya (Mahavagga) that Upaka, a man of the Ajivaka sect of naked ascetics, founded by Gosala, said to have been a pupil of Mahāvīra, met the Buddha just after his enlightenment, and noticing his bright countenance, asked him who had been his teacher? He replied, "Having gained all knowledge, I am myself the highest teacher." Thereupon the naked ascetic shook his head and went another road. Clearly these naked Niganthas, disciples of the Jaina Teacher Mahāvīra, were no friends of the Buddha. It seems to me even possible that Gautama's great rival, Devadatta, may have belonged to a Digambara sect who opposed the Buddha on questions of stricter asceticism, especially in the matter of clothing, for in ancient sculptures Devadatta is generally represented naked or nearly so, and is generally in close proximity to his cousin Gautama Buddha, who is always clothed in marked contrast to the other. Evidently the question of dress was

a crucial one, and in process of time a party seems to have arisen, even among the Digambara Jains, opposed to strict asceticism in this particular.

This party ultimately formed themselves into a separate sect, calling themselves Svetambaras, that is, 'clothed in white garments.' It is well known that in early Buddhism two similar parties arose, the strict and the lax. But the two Buddhist parties were ultimately reunited. The second council is supposed to have settled the controversy. But this point I leave to our Secretary. Dr. Jacobi has shown that the separation of the two Jain sects must have taken place (according to the traditions of both parties) some time or other before the first century of our era.

It appears probable that the strict Digambaras preceded the more lax Svetāmbaras, though each sect claims to be the oldest. The two Jain sects have remained separate to the present day, and do not intermarry or I believe eat together, though in all essential points of doctrine and discipline they agree.

When I was last in India, in 1884, I ascended the two hills, Parasnath and Aboo (both of them most sacred places in the estimation of the Jains, and covered with their temples). I also visited Delhi, Jaypur, Ājmīr, and some other chief Jain stations in India. Jaypur is the stronghold of the Digambara Jains, and when I was staying there two intelligent Digambara Pandits, named Phate Lal and Gyoji Lal, visited me. We conversed for a long time in Sanskrit, and I asked them many questions about their religion, and the points in which they differed from the Svetambara

sect.

Three chief differences were stated to be: First, the Svetambaras object to entirely nude images of any of the twenty-four Jinas or Tirthankaras accepted by both sects. Hence all Svetambara statues ought to have some appearance of a line round the middle of the body, representing a narrow strip of cloth.

The

Secondly, the Svetāmbaras admit women into their order of ascetics just as Buddhists have their Bhikkhunīs or nuns. Digambaras, for obvious reasons, do not admit women.

Thirdly, the Svetambaras have distinct sacred books of their own, which they call Angas, limbs of the Law,' eleven in number, besides many others, making 45 Agamas, 11 Angas, 12 Upangas, 10 Painnas, 4 Mülas, 6 Chedas, 1 Anuyogadvāra, and 1 Nandi. Dr. Bühler places the composition of the Angas in the third century B.C. Jacobi places them at the end of the fourth or be

ginning of the third century. They are written in Jain Prakrit, a later form of Pali, with Sanskrit commentaries. The Digambaras, on the other hand, substitute for the Angas later works, also written in more modern Prakrit (probably in the fifth or sixth century after Christ), and maintain that the Svetambara Canon is spurious. Both sects have many valuable Sanskrit works in their sacred literature.

I now add a few characteristics of both sects of Jains as distinguishing them from Buddhists.

I pass over the fact that the Jains of the present day keep up Caste. The two Jain Pandits who came to me at Jaypur were Brahmans, and wore the Brahminical thread. This is of little importance, however, because I believe this to be a mere modern innovation.

More important are the following points: The Jain saints, or prophets, are called by a peculiar name Tīrthankara, 'fordmakers,' i.e. making a ford across the troubled river of constant births or transmigrations (Samsara) to the Elysium of Nirvana; whereas the name Tirthankara with the Buddhists means a 'heretical teacher.' Then there are twenty-four Jaina Tīrthankaras, whereas there are twenty-five Buddhas.

Next the Jains have no Stūpas or Dagobas for preserving the relics of their saints.

Still more important is the point that the Jains believe in separate individual souls (Jīva), whereas the Buddhists deny the existence of souls. Souls, according to the Jains, may exist in stocks, stones, lumps of earth, drops of water, particles of fire. Hence metempsychosis with the Jains extends to inorganic matter, whereas with the Buddhists it stops at animals.

With regard to the moral code two or three points may be noticed. The Jaina three jewels are Right-belief, Right-knowledge, and Right-conduct, whereas the Buddhist Tri-ratna consists in the well-known Triad, Buddha, the Law, and the Monkhood. Then as to the five chief Moral Prohibitions, the fifth with Jains is, Have no worldly attachments, whereas with Buddhists it is, Drink no strong drink. The Jains, too, lay even more stress on the first prohibition, Kill no living creature, than the Buddhists do.

Another interesting difference is that Jainism makes Dharma and Adharma, good and evil, or rather merit and demerit, two out of its six real substances-its fundamental and eternal principles(Astikaya), the other four being matter (pudgala), soul (jīva),

space and time. Lastly, the prayer formula of the Jains differs from the well-known three-refuge' formula of the Buddhists ('I go for refuge to the Buddha, the Law, and the order of Monks') thus: Reverence to the Arhats, to the Siddhas, to the Acaryas, to the Upadhyāyas, to all the Sadhus (name Arihantāṇam, name Siddhāṇam name Ayariyāṇam name Uvajjhāyāņam, Namo we sabba-sahunam). Minor differences, such as the Jain rule that the hair should be painfully torn off, instead of cut off, scarcely deserve mention on the present occasion. I will merely now lay the letters before the Secretary.

Mr. RANG LAL said: Though I am a Jain by birth and training, yet I have not had the advantage of much education in that ancient religion, being too much occupied with my College studies. I do not presume, therefore, to place before you more than an outline of their social customs, and of the general forms of worship observed by that sect.

The Jains are very conservative and very tenacious in all that concerns their primitive practice and notions. Most of them are opposed to their religious books being translated or even printed. They keep what they consider a mine of precious stones to themselves, so that no one else may be able to share it. Often have I seen, when I went to the temples, the scribes sitting in a corner, copying from the same manuscript day after day, month after month; this is their settled occupation. I dare say you know how tedious this work of copying is. You can see then that even Jains, who do not know Sanskrit, have but a poor chance of getting muc reliable information about their faith, except by second-hand through other people. This will partly explain what makes this ancient religion so mysterious and little known. It is supposed to be a disgrace to a Jain to sell a religious book to any one but a Jain, hence these books are so very difficult to get by any outside the religious circle. So, the disputed and critical point of the religion I will leave alone, and confine myself to general religious customs and the forms of worship.

I commence by giving you some idea of the number who profess this religion. By the latest computation they are 1,222,000, comprising 640,000 males and 582,000 females. I believe this number is pretty accurate. My idea of the Jain population is based on a large gathering we had at Dehli, I think in 1882. It was on the occasion of a new temple being consecrated. Invitations were sent far and wide, and hence we had a concourse of between seventy or

eighty thousand, besides two or three thousand belonging to Dehli itself. An open space of ground outside the city walls was chosen for that purpose. Many came in bullock carriages, with their tents and every domestic article for use during the stay of some days. Perhaps you know that natives of India have no hotels where they can get food cooked strictly according to religion; and even if we had any hotels, it would have been impossible to put up such a large number. It was like a great market day, but on a much larger scale, and lasted about ten days. Roads were made, and places allotted to every town represented, and finger-posts put up to that effect, so that one could easily find the place wanted. It seemed as though a new suburb had sprung up; there were thousands and thousands of private tents, shops, and places of amusement, such as always accompany any native gathering whether religious or not. All these centered round a large tent used temporarily as a kind of church or temple, with a huge pavilion in the front where religious books were read and expounded for the benefit of the assembled public. The first ceremony was that of conveying round the town the image of the Tirthankara in a golden chariot, preceded by a procession which comprised a large number of banners inscribed with religious mottoes, the most important being "Ahinsa paramo dharmo," To preserve a living creature is the first principle of this faith.' All the male community of the Jains followed barefooted. Our idea of doing honour is by going barefooted, as in Europe by going bareheaded. We cannot go into the temples with shoes on, nor even with socks on; and further, we have to wash our feet before entering the most sacred part of the temples. On that cold morning the procession having started at 7.30, we all had to walk barefooted on the stony pavements, but religious faith gives such a zeal that one does not feel any suffering or inconvenience.

It is a well-known fact that the Jains are friendly and always render help to each other. I may confidently say that no poor Jain will be found asking for help from any one outside the caste circle. In fact many compare us with Freemasons, meaning that we have such a close social union, and are in so much sympathy with each other, that every one does his utmost with his money and influence to help all in need and to maintain the honour and credit of the whole community. I may add that in Dehli we are not called Jains as a rule, but Saraugis. I think this word is a corruption of the Sanskrit word Shravaka.'